Explore A Country With Such Rich Heritage

Blog Updated

2009-02-16T09:56:00.000-08:00

This blog has been removed please visit

http://bharatganarajya.blogspot.com/

Amber Fort or Amer Fort

2009-02-04T09:39:00.000-08:00

Amber Fort also known as the Amer Fort is located in Amber (Jaipur), which used to be the capital of the Kachhwaha clan, till Jaipur was made the official capital in 1727. The Amber Fort looks stunning, all-built in white marble and red sandstone. To add to its charm, Maotha Lake makes its foreground. The crystal mirror image of the Fort, on the still waters of the lake, seems to be a beautiful illusion. In 1592, construction of the Fort was started by Raja Man Singh I. However, the Amber Fort took its present form during the reign of Raja Jai Singh I.

The outer appearance of the Fort, being rough and craggy is totally different from its core. The interior of the Fort provides a soothing and warm ambience, which is least expected from its outer appearance. The marvelous decoration of the Amer Fort is influenced by both, the Hindu and Muslim manner of ornamentation. Exquisite paintings of hunting scenes on the walls depict the temperament of the Rajputs, who were adventurous, revolutionary and self-indulgent.

The intricate carvings on the walls and ceilings simply astonish the visitors. The minute mirror work adds to the grand appearance and royalty of the halls. The Amer Fort undoubtedly captivates the tourists with its artistic quality of delicate work. The mighty walls guarantee the protection of the Fort against the invasion of the enemies. The Fort is divided into four subparts.

Kali Temple, which is also known as Shila Devi Temple, forms the part of the Fort. It is renowned for its glorious past, huge silver lions and silver doors. The Hall of Public Audiences, Diwan-I-Aam is a pavilion with double row of columns. Ganesh Pol, another feature of the Fort, directs the way to the inhabited apartments of the King. The Hall of Victory, Jai Mandir has a stunning ceiling comprised of mirror work and an inlaid panel. The Fort has numerous other halls and pavilions with their own specific attraction.

The best part of this is situated on a crafty hill, the royal elephant ride. The flawless beauty of the Fort can be enjoyed royally with an elephant ride. Amber/Amer Fort is the part of Jaipur and its royalty. A trip to Jaipur would be definitely incomplete, without the visit to this imperial Fort of Amber.

How to reach

You can reach Amber Fort either by taking local buses from the jaipur city or by hiring taxis.

City Palace

2009-01-28T11:31:00.000-08:00

City Palace forms one of the most famous tourist attractions and a major landmark in Jaipur. The beautiful palace was built by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh during his reign. Among the various forts and palaces of Jaipur, City Palace stands apart, with its outstanding art and architecture. City Palace complex covers a huge area, which is divided into a series of gardens, courtyards and buildings. Initially, Raja Jai Singh built the outer wall occupying a huge area. The additional grand buildings were constructed later by the succeeding rulers.

A part of the exquisite Palace still makes home for the former Maharaja/ King. The premises consists several buildings like Chandra Mahal, Mubarak Mahal, Mukut Mahal, Maharani's Palace, Shri Govind Dev Temple and the City Palace Museum. One would come across the Mubarak Mahal, as one enters the first square. Mubarak Mahal was built by Sawai Madho Singh in the 19th century to entertain his guests. Today, it has converted into a costume gallery, which displays royal attires of the Kings.

After crossing the first square, a beautiful gateway welcomes to Diwan-I-Khas, a hall meant for private audience. It has two sterling silver vessels on display and they are acclaimed to be the world's largest silver vessel. These vessels were made for Maharaja Sawai Madho Singh II to carry water from River Ganga to drink on his trip to England. Diwan-I-Aam, which was meant for public audience, forms the other attraction of this courtyard. At present, it makes an art gallery showcasing enthralling painted ceilings and rare ancient handwritten original manuscripts of Hindu scriptures.

In the series, Maharani's Palace, which was meant for royal queens, has been converted into a museum, showcasing weapons dated back to 15th century. Chandra Mahal is essentially regarded as the best part, out of the whole tour to City Palace. It has seven stories and each story is known by a different name. The topmost story is known as Mukut Mahal. The wonderful architecture of this Palace with delicate paintings, mirror work on walls and floral decorations, makes it a "must-see" for every visitor. In the present day, this palace serves as the residence of ex-ruler.

Badal Mahal stands opposite to Chandra Mahal and while crossing the path, one would find Govind Dev Ji Temple between them. Above all these, the Palace also offers delicacies in its multi cuisine restaurant. To sum up, the City Palace is a structure of historical importance and a souvenir of the regal past. The palace, with its royal grace stands as a symbol of magnificence. All these features of City Palace leave the tourists with no other option, but to visit it.

Udaipur

2009-01-28T11:29:00.000-08:00

Udaipur was the capital city of the Rajput kingdom of Mewar, ruled by Sisodia clan. Before Udaipur, Chittorgarh was the capital of Mewar. But after the conquer of Chittorgarh by Mughal emperor Akbar in 1568, Umed Singh fled to Udaipur and founded a new city. It remained a part of the Mughal empire after prince Khurram crushed the Rajput resistance in 1614. During mid 17th century, the ruling Sisodia dynasty prospered under Mughal patronage. But with the decline of Mughal empire in 19th century, the Rajput kingdom reasserted its power and became a princely state of British India. After India gained independence in 1947, Mewar was integrated into India's Rajasthan state.

Places To Visit

Known as the city of lakes, Udaipur offers a wide range of tourist attractions

City Palace

Lake Palace

Built in 1746 by Jagat Singh, it was the summer residence of the ruler of Mewar. This magnificent white marble structure has balconies, terrace gardens, arched windows and the interiors are decorated with paintings, mirror & crystal. Now, it has been converted into a heritage hotel and offers some breathtaking views of the surroundings.

Lakes

Lakes are the major attractions of this city. Lake Pichola and Lake Fateh Sagar are the two most important lakes of the city. Surrounded by hills, palaces & temples these lakes offer boat trips that provides some evocative views to its tourists.

Geographical area & population

Located at the foot of the Aravali hills, the lake city of Udaipur is at an altitude of 577 m above sea level. With an area of 37 sq. km. the city has a population of 3,66,000 according to the 2001 census. The city lies between latitude 24.35 degree north and longitude 73.43 east. The city experiences a tropical climate with a maximum temperature of 38.3 degrees C during summer and a minimum of 11.6 degrees in winters. The annual total rainfall is 61 cm.

Geographical area of City : 37 sq. km.
Population of City : 3,66,000(2001 census)

The lake city of Rajasthan, Udaipur attract tourists from all over the world for its terrific lakes and magnificent historic monuments. The city also offers comfortable stay in various exotic heritage, luxury and budget class hotels with best hospitality. The hotels offers all kinds of modern facilities for making your tour to Udaipur a comfortable and memorable one. Amongst the leading hotels in Udaipur are :

Fairs & Festival of Udaipur

There are several festivals celebrated in Udaipur with much fanfare and enthusiasm by people of all walks of life. The Mewar festival is one of the most important festival of Udaipur, which is celebrated to welcome the advent of spring. Gangaur and Teej are other festivals which are celebrated with a lot of joy in different part of the city. Rituals associated with religions, cultural events including songs, dances are major part of each festival.

Access

The Lake City is easily accessible from all parts of India by Air, Rail & Road.

By Air
Maharana Pratap(Dabok) Airport is the nearest airport which is 24 km from the city centre. Regular flights connect the city with Delhi, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad & Mumbai.

By Rail
Indian Railway connects Udaipur to all the major cities of India via Chittorgarh. The heritage train Palace On Wheels also covers the city.

By Road
A good network of road service links it with all the major cities of Rajasthan & India. Udaipur is on the NH8 that links Delhi to Mumbai via Jaipur and Ahmedabad.

Jaisalmer Fort

2009-01-28T11:22:00.000-08:00

Standing almost 30 m above the city of Jaisalmer is the Jaisalmer fort. The fort is also known as the Sonar Quila. This is because standing against the backdrop of the desert with its golden sand, the fort looks straight out of a fairy tale. Sonar Quila of Jaisalmer is a massive complex comprising of a palace, various security sources, the havelis of rich merchants, several temples and the residential complexes of the armies and traders.

During the reign of the Bhatti Rajputs, the Merchant community acquired great deal of power. They constructed huge mansions (havelis) adjacent to each other. The havelis of merchants have decorations on walls and ceilings and carvings on outdoors and interiors. The sandstone mansions of the merchants were built by stone craftsmen. The sculptural filigree, screen windows, delicate pavilions and beautiful balconies of the mansions are worth paying attention to. Even today, these examples of superb architecture stand inhabited.

Also enclosed within the fort is an entire living area within huge ramparts. The walk to the fort, through the narrow lanes, is an experience in itself. Leading to the fort are its four gates Ganesh Pol, Suraj Pol, Bhoot Pol and Hawa Pol. The Jaisalmer fort of Rajasthan also encompasses a group of Jain temples dating back to the 12th century.

Reaching Jaisalmer Fort

By Air
The nearest airport is at Jodhpur, 285 Km away from Jaisalmer.

By Rail
Jaisalmer is connected to rest of India by well-laid railway tracks.

By Road
Jaisalmer is connected to other parts of Rajasthan and neighboring states by a well-developed network of roads.

Mehrangarh Fort

2009-01-28T11:05:00.000-08:00

Perched on a 150 m high hill its sprawl is the most formidable and magnificent fort in Rajasthan. Rao Jodha founded it in 1459 but subsequent rulers of Jodhpur have also added to it over the centuries. A meandering road leads to the from the city 5 kms below. Battle scars of canon ball hit by attacking armies of Jaipur can still be seen on the second gate.

To the left is chhatri of Kirat Singh Soda, a soldier who fell on the spot while defending the fort against the armies of Amber. There are seven gates, which include Jayapol meaning victory built by Maharaja Man Singh to commemorate his victories over Jaipur and Bikaner armies. Fattehpol also meaning victory gate was built by Maharaja Ajit Singh to mark the defeat of Mughals.

And Lohapol meaning iron gate has a moving memorabilia on palm print of the queens of Maharaja Man Singh who threw themselves on his funeral pyre in an act of sati [self-immolation]. The palm imprints still attract devotional attention and are covered by vermilion paste and paper-thin silver foil.

Mehrangarh fort is about 5km from Jodhpur Town. Guarding the city below, crowning a perpendicular cliff, the fort was founded by Rao Jodha in 1459 AD when he shifted his capital from Mandore.

Standing sentinel to the city below, it over looks the rugged and rocky terrain and houses a palace intricately adorned with long carved panels and latticed windows exquisitely wrought from red sandstone.

The apartments within, have their own magic -the Moti mahal (Pearl Palace), Phool Mahal (Flower Palace), Sheesh Mahal (Mirror Palace), Sileh Khana and Daulat Khana with a rich varied collection of palanquins, howdas, royal cradles, miniature paintings of various schools, folk music, instruments, costumes, furniture and an impressive armoury.

The display of cannons on the ramparts near Chamunda temple is among the rarest in India. As you climb up, folk musicians revive the grandeur of a bygone era.

Fort Museum

This is one of the finest museums in Rajasthan and certainly the best layed out. In the palanquin section of the fort museum, you can see an interesting collection of old royal palanquins including the elaborate domed gilt Mahadol palanquin, which was won in a battle from the Governor of Gujarat in 1730. The museum exhibits the heritage of the Rathores in arms, costumes, paintings and decorated period rooms.

Phool Mahal

The grandest of Mehrangarh's period rooms, the Phool Mahal was in all likely hood a private and exclusive chamber of pleasure dancing girls once swooned in exhaustion here under a ceiling rich in gold filigree. The Phool Mahal was created by Maharaja Abhaya Singh (1724-1749) and the gold came from Ahmedabad in Gujarat as war booty after his famous victory over the rebellious Mughal governor, Sarbuland Khan. The paintings, royal portraits and the ever-popular raga mala, came much later, in the reign of Jaswant Singh II.

Jhanki Mahal

The Jhanki Mahal, from where the royal ladies watched the official proceedings, in the courtyard, today houses a rich collection of the royal cradles. The cradles are decorated with gilt mirrors and figures of fairies, elephant and birds

In 1458, secure in his dominion, Jodha became the fifteenth Rathore ruler. The Raj Tilak or formal anointment of the prince, necessary because it vests in the man divinity, was performed by his elder brother Akhairaj, Ranmal's rightful heir who renounced his claim in favor of his younger brother because the latter had reconquered every inch of Marwar himself..

Within a year of his accession Rao Jodha decided to build a new capital. The fort in Mandore, already over a thousand years old, was no longer considered strong and safe. In doing so he bequeathed to India one of her greatest forts and most beautiful cities.

The foundation of this fort was laid on 12th May,1459 by Jodha himself on a rocky hill six miles south of Mandore. The hill, a hundred and twenty meters high, was known as Bhakurcheeria, the Mountain of Birds, or Cheeriatunk, the Bird's Beak. Its lone human occupant at the time was an old hermit called Cheeria Nathji, the Lord of the Birds.( Even today the fort is home to thousands of birds, particularly the Cheel or Kite, the sacred bird of the Rathores.)

Auspicious though the day, it was not a smooth beginning for Jodha because the disturbed hermit left his cave cursing the invaders of his solitary world. His curse, impossible to forget even today, "Jodha! May your citadel ever suffer a scarcity of water!" A terrible curse anywhere, in Marwar heralding doom itself. Undeterred Jodha continued with his construction but he did take some measures to appease the gods. Besides building a house for Cheeria Nathji in his new city he also constructed a temple in the fort very near the cave the hermit used for meditation. The cave and temple together with a pond in front form an enchanting spot today. And over five hundred years later fresh flowers are still placed every morning in the temple to placate the irate hermit...

Jodha then took the extreme step to ensure the new site proved propitious; he buried a man alive in the foundations. The man was Rajiya Bambi (Meghwal) and he was promised that in return his family would forever more be looked after by the Rathores. It was a promise that has been honored and Rajiya's descendants continue to enjoy a special relationship with the Maharaja. A proud family they still live in Raj Bagh, Rajiya's Garden, the estate bequeathed by Jodha.

Rajiya's fate is an established fact of history but there are sources, albeit less reliable, which record three other human sacrifices in the foundations of Jodha's fort. Four in all, one for each corner if these sources are to be believed. Of the three one is held to be Rajiya's son and another a Brahmin named Mehran, both improbable choices. It seems unlikely that Jodha would pick two men from the same family and a Hidu king sacrificing a Brahmin or priest does not ring quite true.

The controversy remains alive because these sources claim that Jodha named his new fort after Mehran. Today the fort is indeed called Mehrangarh, Mehran's Fort, and it has been for some time, but the origin of this name remains a mystery. Did Mehran really exist and was he offered to the gods? For the present these are secrets trapped in the depths of Bhakurcheeria. On the other hand the answer may, in fact, be quite simple; Mehr is a Rajasthani word for the Sun and it is not at all unlikely that the Rathores, who claim descent from the Sun, would name their first citadel in His honor.

Whatever Jodha named his fort, a citadel on which he spent all of rupees nine hundred thousand, it was very different from what the present Maharaja of Jodhpur, Gaj Singh II, inherited four hundred and ninety three years later. To begin with, it was much, much smaller; the extremities of the original fortress fall within the second gate today. As the Rathores grew more powerful Mehrangarh, at once a symbol of their glory and the basis of their strength, expanded. Every ruler left his mark and therein lies Mehrangarh's beauty, for it is today a magnificent blend of different reigns and ages, styles and influences, compulsions and dreams...

Its towering battlements, a hundred and twenty feet high, and stern walls, in places six meters thick, testify to the strength of Rao Maldev (1532-1562) in whose reign the Rathores reached the zenith of their power. The palaces, extravagant and exquisite edifices of peace and prosperity, whisper a thousand secrets; of machiavellian intrigues, dazzling riches and decadent pleasures under the imperial Mughal umbrella (1582-1739). The main gates, Fateh Pol and Jai Pol, sing of great victories, against the Mughals in 1707 and the Jaipur forces a hundred years later; while the lofty ramparts, fiercely brandishing Maharaja Abhaya Singh's (1724-1749) war trophies, proclaim them to the world...

Mehrangarh has never, not even once, been taken in a siege. Invincible and mighty, inspiring awe, admiration, envy and fear in friend and foe alike, Mehrangarh is the very spirit of the Rathores. Indeed, no historian, no white-whiskered royal retainer, no chronicle, no ballad, no poem can rival the Citadel of the Sun in bringing alive the story of the Rathores of Jodhpur. Every mile-stone in their adventure, every triumph, every act of courage is immortalized here in stone and mortar, marble and metal. The palaces, lavished with delicate friezes, record successful campaigns; cart-loads of war booty and caravans laden with imperial favor. The cenotaphs recount stirring tales of valor and sacrifice; cannon-ball marks on the walls speak of repulsed enemies; the hand-prints, tiny and graceful on the portals, weep in remembrance of faithful queens lost to the flames of Sati...

Jodhpur

2009-01-28T11:00:00.000-08:00

In 1459 AD, Rao Jodha, chief of Rathore clan of Rajputs, who claimed descent from Rama, the epic here of the Ramayana, laid the foundation of Jodhpur. A high stone wall protects the well-fortified city. The wall is nearly 10km in length and has eight gates facing various directions.

A valiant sentinel in the desert, on the eastern fringe of the Thar desert has the distinction of neither being a part of the Thar desert nor out of it. At best it is a doorway to the wonderland of sand dunes and shrubs, rocky terrain and thorny trees. The home of the Rathroes - the awesome princely state of Rajasthan. They conquered Marwar or Maroodesh, land of the sand after the fall of Delhi and Kannauj.

Within, stands an imposing fort on a low range of sandstone hills, about 125m above the surrounding plains. Invincible! And dauntless in its league with time! The city lies at the foot of the hills. The clear distinction between the old and the new city is visible from the ramparts of the fort.

On the other side of the city, facing the fort is the Umaid Bhawan Palace. One of the most spacious, sprawling and well-planned palaces in India. And from here, as you look at fort, a tantalizing view rises before your eyes at sunset.

The peculiar slant of the sunset lends the desert landscape an awe-inspiring glow and the people, a chivalry undaunted. This bustling desert city is the second largest city in Rajasthan after Jaipur and has landscape dominated by the massive Meherangarh Fort topping a sheer rocky ridge. The old city is fenced by 10 km long wall with eight Gates leading out of it. The new city is outside the walled city. Rao Jodha, a chief of the Rathore clan, founded the city in 1459 and it is named after him.

The Afghans drove the Rathores out of their original homeland Kaunaj and they fled to this region around Pali a short distance from present day Jodhpur. A manoeuvre lead to marriage between Rathore Siahaji and the sister of a local prince that helped the Rathores to establish and strengthen themselves in this region. In fact they flourished so well that managed to oust the Pratiharas of Mandore, just 9 km of present day Jodhpur.

By 1459 a need for more secured capital lead to the founding of Meherangarh Fort on its rocky perch and Jodhpur was thus founded by Rao Jodha. The Rathores enjoyed good relations with the Mughals and Maharaja Jaswant Singh (1678) supported Shah Jahan in the latter's struggle for war of succession. Only problematic relationship they had was with Aurangzeb.

After Auranzeb's death Maharaja Ajit Singh drove out Mughals from Ajmer and added it to Marwar. In the reign of Maharaja Umed Singh Jodhpur grew into a fine modern city. The quintessence of Jodhpur was its valour and equestrian skill. Polo has been the traditional sport of the Jodhpur nobility since medieval times.

Jodhpur has two railway stations, City and Rai ka Bagh both are outside the walled city. The bus stand is right outside the Rai ka Bagh Station. The High Court is a while from the bus stand after the Umed Gardens, after which is located the tourist reception centre and RTDC Hotel Ghoomer. Ahead is the main market and entry in to the wall from Sojati Gate.

This area also has many hotels. Jodhpur is also military and air force station and has a large cantonment and airbase.

Places to Visit

Mehrangarh Fort

Jaswant Thada

Built in the memory of Maharaja Jaswant Singh II , in 1899 , the imposing white marble memorial marks the site of a royal crematorium. The cenotaph houses portraits of successive rulers. These four cenotaphs commemorate notable acts of bravery, generosity of the four successive rulers.
Timings 0900 to 1700 hrs.

Umaid Bhawan Palace

Built by Maharaja Umaid Singh (1929 -1942) and named after him, this exquisite palace is also known as Chittar Palace because of the local chittar sandstone used. It is a splendid example, of Indo-colonial and art deco style of the 30s. A unique feature of this palace is the fact that the hand chiseled sandstone blocks have been put together in a special system of interlocking, there is not mortar binding.

Government Museum

Nestling in the middle of the Umaid Public Garden, this museum houses a rich collection of exhibits - armoury, textiles, local arts and crafts, miniature paintings. Portraits of rulers, manuscripts and images of Jain Tirthankars. Umaid Public Garden houses a zoo also. Timing : 1000 to 1630 hrs (Friday closed).

Girdikot & Sardarkot Market

Throbbing with activity, the colourful bazaar, near Clock tower, has narrow lanes dotted with tiny shops selling exquisite Rajashani textiles, handicrafts, clay figurines of camels and elephants, marble curios with inlay work and exquisite Rajasthani silver jewelry.

Maha Mandir Temple

Leterally, the great temple, a place where sacred glory reigns in a peaceful tranquility. Situated on Mandore road, the temple is an architectural splendor, supported by 84 pillars and ornamented with detailed designs and figures depicting various postures of Yoga. The entire structure is marked by a unique and original style.

Jaisalmer

2009-01-28T10:49:00.000-08:00

The city has an interesting legend associated with it, according to which, lord Krishna- the head of Yadav clan foretold Arjuna that a remote descendent of the Yadav clan would build his kingdom atop the Trikuta Hill, His prophecy was fulfilled in 1156AD. When Rawal Jaisal, a Bhatti Rajput abandoned his fort at Lodurva and founded a new capital Jaisalmer, perched on the Trikuta Hill Bhatti Rajputs of Jaisalmer were fedual chief who lived off the forced levy on the caravans laden with precious silks and spices that crossed the territory enroute Delhi-or Sind. These seems to be straight out of the “Tales of the Arabian Night” still enchants.

The life within the citadel conjures up images of medieval majesty visible in its narrow lanes strewn with magnificent palaces, havelis, temples and of course skilled artisans and ubiquitous camels. the setting turn Jaisalmer into a beautiful golden brown is a spectacular sight.

The perfect time to visit the golden city is during the Desert Festival held in Jan/Feb. every year, when the city reverberates to the sound of melodious tunes and rhythms. Folk dances, exciting competitions and contest, especially the turban raying contest.

Mr. Desert contest and camel races enliven the festivals colorful craft bazars are setup for the occasion and a sound and light spectacle is organized with folk artistes performing against the spledid backdrop of the famous sam sand dunes on the full moon night. Surely a not-to-be-missed events.

Its like straight out of an Arabian Nights fable. The name Jaisalmer induces a dramatic picture of utter magic and brilliance of the desert. The hostile terrain not with standing the warmth and colour of people is simply over whelming. One of the main draws is the daunting 12th century Jaisalmer Fort. The beautiful havelis which were built by wealthy merchants of Jaisalmer are yet another interesting aspect of the desert city.

And you can let your eyes caress the sloppy sand dunes while you ramble your way in a camel safari. The desert citadel is truly a golden fantasy in Thar Desert. Bhatti Rajput ruler Rawal Jaisal, after whom the city finds its name, founded Jaisalmer in 1156.

On advice of a local hermit Eesaal he chose the Tricut Hills as his new abode abandoning his vulnerable old fort at Luderwa just 16 kilometres northwest. In Medieval times, its prosperity was due to its location on the main trade route linking India to Egypt, Arabia, Persia, Africa and the West. The Bhatti Rajput rulers lined their coffer with gains from traditional taxes on passing by caravans and sometimes through illicit gains by rustling cattle.

Over the years the remote location of Jaisalmer kept it almost untouched by outside influences. In the 13th century Ala-ud-din Khilji Emperor of Delhi besieged the fort for nine years in an effort to take back the treasure taken by the Bhatti Rajput from his imperial caravan train. When the fall of the fort was imminent the women of the fort committed Jauhar, an act of mass self-immolation, while men donned saffron robes and rode to their certain death.

Duda son of Jaitasimha, a Bhatti hero also perished in the battle. Dudas descendants continued to rule Jaisalmer. In 1541 they even fought Mughal Emperor Himayun. Though their relations with Mugshal was not always hostile. Sabala Simha won the patronage of Mughal Emperor Shaha Jahan for battle distinctions in Peshawar and the right to rule Jaisalmer. In the days of Raj, Jaisalmer was the last to sign the Instrument of Agreement with the British.

Ages have gone by and the monuments of Jaisalmer have withstood the buffeting winds of the desert all through. Jaisalmer is a marvel of beautiful culture and harsh climatic conditions, together amounting to a memorable experience. The old city was completely encircled by wall but much of it is now pulled down sadly for want of building material in recent years.

The massive golden fort, which is the essence of Jaisalmer, is entered through First Gate. Is a burrow of narrow streets complete with Jain Temples and old palaces. The main market the Bhatia Market is right below the hill. The bank, offices and several shops are also located near the Amar Sagar Gate to the west.

Places To Visit

Jaisalmer Fort

Gadsisar Lake

A scenic rain water lake with numerous beautiful shrines around and a spectacular avian variety. The lake is an idyllic spot for outings.

Tazia Tower

A pagoda like structure looming up from the "Badal Mahal" with beautiful Taazias' - ornately decorated bamboo, paper and tinsel replicas of a bier, carried out in processing during Moharram by the Muslims.

Nathmal ji ki Haveli

The late 19th century haveli with intricate architecture a display of sheer craftsmanship. The left and right wings of the mansions, which were carved by two brothers, are not identical but very similar and balanced in design. The interior walls are ornate with splendid miniature paintings.

Patwa ki Haveli

The most elaborate and magnificient of all the Jaisalmer havelis. It has exquisitely carved pillars and exquisitely carved pillars and extensive corridors and chambers.
One of the apartments of this five story high haveli is painted with beautiful murals.

Salim Singh ki Haveli

This 300 year old Haveli of Jaisalmer's Prime Minister to Maharaja Rawal Gaj Singh Salim Singh, has a beautiful blue cupola roof with superby carved brackets in the form of peacocks. This extraordinary mansion in yellow stone is covered with intricate carvings and has an elaborate projecting balcony on the top storey.
The mansion is one of the most notables of the array of havelis.

Jain Temples

The fort has three exquisitely carved Jain temples dedicated to the Jain Tirthankara-Rishabdev, Sambhavnath and Parswanath.

Gyan Bhandar of Library

Some of the oldest manuscripts of India are found in this library established as a part of jain temples

How To Reach

Air
Jaisalmer has an airport, which is located 5km from the city center and is well linked by air with New Delhi, Jaipur and Jodhpur. However it is managed by the Indian Air Force and is operational only from September to March. So Jodhpur airport at a distance of about 285 km is the better option.

Rail
Jaisalmer is well connected by rail with Jodhpur as well as other major cities of India including Agra, Jaipur, New Delhi and Mumbai.

Road
Jaisalmer has a good network of roads and is well connected to other cities of Rajasthan including Jaipur, Jodhpur and Bikaner and major cities of India.

Jal Mahal

2009-01-28T10:39:00.001-08:00

Jal Mahal of Jaipur is a pleasure palace built in the 18th century. Situated amidst the picturesque Mansagar Lake, the palace has the Nahargarh hills forming its backdrop. Jaipur Jal Mahal Palace is an architectural beauty and was meant to be used for the royal duck shooting parties. Developed as an enjoyment spot, it is entered through a causeway situated in the middle of Mansagar Lake. Jal Mahal of Jaipur, Rajasthan is a five-story palace, with the first four floors being submerged under water. The Nahargarh Fort situated nearby offers a splendid view of the lake as well as the palace. You can also get magnificent views of the Jal Mahal place of Jaipur from Mansagar Dam on the eastern side of the lake. The Mansagar Lake is also a bird watcher's paradise as it serves as the home of a variety of local as well as migratory birds. Opposite the palace are the cenotaphs of the royal family.

Hawa Mahal

2009-01-28T10:39:00.000-08:00

Hawa Mahal is a major landmark and a famous tourist attraction of Jaipur. The Palace offers a beautiful sight to behold. The splendid Rajputana architecture of Hawa Mahal, still speaks the glory of the royal family. However, one can also find a glimpse of Mughal architecture, which is blended perfectly to make it different from others. The literal meaning of Hawa Mahal is Palace of Winds. Hawa Mahal was built by Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh in 1799.

Hawa Mahal is a pyramid-shaped facade with five stories. It has 953 small windows decorated with tiny lattice work. These pink sandstone windows commonly known as "Jharokhas" are constructed in such a style, that it looks like a giant honeycomb. The air circulation through windows represents the marvelous touch of Mughal designing, which keeps the Palace always cool. The small screened balconies and arched roofs with hanging cornices enhance the beauty of the Palace. The Pyramidal outline and replication of pattern makes it more attractive in appearance.

As a matter of fact, Hawa Mahal is believed to build for the women of the Royal Families, since they had to observe strict "purdah" (cover). The small windows and screened balconies serve the women to watch processions and different activities taking place on the streets. In this manner, the women could enjoy a sense of freedom without showing themselves.

Early morning is considered as the best time to visit the Palace, when it is drenched in the golden light of the Sun. At this time, Hawa Mahal appears incredible. One cannot possibly describe the beauty of the Palace in words. The golden light of the early morning sun floats beautifully through the windows of this palace creating a wonderful sight for one and all. The palace has to be visited to experience the true beauty.

Bikaner

2009-01-28T10:26:00.000-08:00

Located on the north of the state Rajasthan, the camel country Bikaner is one of the three main destinations of the desert circuit cities of Rajasthan. It was founded by the Rathore prince Rao Bikaji a descendant of founder of Jodhpur, Rao Jodhaji. During medieval period the city was an important trading route to the West Asian countries. The city is popular in all over world for its best riding camels and architectural wealth lying in its marvelous forts, palaces and temples.

Climate of Bikaner

Due to its proximity to the desert, the city experiences a hot and humid climate with high temperature difference. During summer the average temperature varies between 48 and 28 degrees C and it winter it is between 22 and 4 degrees C. In monsoon the city receives an average rainfall of about 26-46 cms.

Places To Visit

Junagarh Fort

Built by Raja Rai Singh between 1588 to 1593, the fort complex was bounded by a 986 meter long wall with two entrances. The Suraj Pol is the main entrance to the fort. There are several palaces within the fort complex including Chandra Mahal, Phool Mahal, Rang Mahal and Ganga Mahal. Paintings, mirrors, marble carvings are the major attractions of these palace. The museum inside the complex has a collection of valuable objects. The fort is open daily from 10 AM to 4.30 PM.

Lallgarh Palace

This architectural beauty of red sandstone was built by Maharaja Ganga Singh in 1902,in the memory of his father Maharaja Lal Singh. The entire palace complex was built by Sir Swinton Jacob and is a blend of Rajput, Muslim and European style architecture. Its intricate carvings on red sandstone is the prime feature of its craftsmanship. The palace complex also houses a museum named the Shri Sadul museum with a rich collection of armory, paintings, portraits and various other antique objects. A part of the palace has now converted into a heritage hotel runs by the Rajasthan Tourist Development Corporation(RTDC). It is open daily from 10 AM to 5 PM except Sundays.

Ganga Golden Jubilee Museum

Run by the Government of Rajasthan, this museum was established in 1937 on the eve of the golden jubilee celebration of Maharaja Ganga Singh. It has a rich collection of local art & crafts, sculpture, terracotta, armory, miniature paintings and several historical records in terms of Mughal Farmans. It is open daily from 10 AM to 5 PM except Friday and all gazetted holidays.

Camel Research Centre

Established in the year 1984, this research centre conducts applied research for improvement of camel breeding. It remains open daily from 2.30 PM to 5.30 PM for the visitors.

Camel Festival

Celebrated every year in the month of January, the Camel Festival is organized by the Department of Tourism, Art & Culture Government of Rajasthan. Folk dances, music, decorated camel procession, camel races, camel dances and various other interesting cultural performances are the prime features of this festival.

Getting to Bikaner

By Air
The nearest airport service is at Jodhpur at a distance of 240 km.

By Rail
Indian Railway connects Bikaner with all the major destinations of Rajasthan & other parts of north India. Also the luxury heritage train Palace on Wheels covers the city in its week long tour.

By Road
Bikaner is well connected by road to some of the major cities of Rajasthan and nearby states.

By Local Transport
Taxis and auto rickshaws are the major modes of local transport

Jaipur-- The Pink City

2009-01-28T10:05:00.000-08:00

Jaipur, the pink city was founded in 1727 by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II, a Kachwaha Rajput, who ruled from 1699-1744. Initially his capital was Amber (city), which lies at a distance of 11 km from Jaipur. He felt the need of shifting his capital city with the increase in population and growing scarcity of water. Jaipur is the first planned city of India and the King took great interest while designing this city of victory. He consulted several books on architecture and architects before making the lay out of Jaipur.

After several battles with Marathas, Jai Singh was keen on the security aspect of the city. Due to this reason, he focused on his scientific and cultural interests to make a brilliant city. Being, a lover of mathematics and science, Jai Singh sought advice from Vidyadhar Bhattacharya, a Brahmin scholar of Bengal, to aid him design the city architecture. Vidyadhar referred the ancient Indian literature on astronomy, books of Ptolemy and Euclid, and discussed the plan with the King.

With a strategic plan, the construction of the city started in 1727. It took around 4years to complete the major palaces, roads and square. The city was built following the principles of Shilpa Shastra, the Indian Architecture. The city was divided into nine blocks, out of which two consist the state buildings and palaces, whereas the remaining seven blocks were allotted to the public. In order to ensure the security, huge fortification walls were made along with seven strong gates.

According to that time, architecture of the town was very advanced and certainly the best in Indian subcontinent. In 1853, when the Prince of Wales visited Jaipur, the whole city was painted pink to welcome him. Today, the neat and broadly laid-out avenues, painted in pink provide a magical charm to the city[neutrality disputed]. Jaipur is rich in its cultural and architectural beauty, which can be traced in the various historical and aesthetic places that reside in the city. This city of victory really wins the hearts of the people with its splendid charisma.

In the 19th century the city grew rapidly and became prosperous; by 1900 it had a population of 160,000. The city's wide boulevards were paved and lit with gas. The city had several hospitals. Its chief industries were in metals and marble, fostered by a school of art founded in 1868. The city also had three colleges, including a Sanskrit college (1865) and a girls' school (1867) initiated under the reign of the enigmatic Maharaja Sawai Ram Singh II. There was also a wealthy and enterprising community of native bankers, particularly the Jains and the Marwaris.

In 1876, Jaipur dressed itself pink to welcom Prince Albert and Queen Elizabeth II, and thus the name “Pink City” stuck to it. Now the capital of the desert state of Rajasthan, it has the rightful blend of rich heritage monuments, palaces and lakes and gardens with the modern buildings and shopping arcades

Places To Visit

Amber Fort or Amer Fort

Hawa Mahal

Jal Mahal

Laxmi Narayan Temple

Rambagh Palace

Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary

2009-01-28T09:44:00.000-08:00

One of the finest bird sanctuaries in the world, Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary is located in the northwestern state of Rajasthan India. Also known as 'Keoladeo Ghana National Park',Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary is famous as an 'Ornithologist's Paradise'. The sanctuary is the only manmade wildlife sanctuary in India, developed by an erstwhile Maharaja of Bharatpur. The sanctuary covers an area of approximately 29 sq km, 10 sq km of which comprises of fresh water marshes, shallow lakes and bogs. The favorable environmental conditions combined with enough nutritious food for the birds at Bharatpur Bird sanctuary attracts thousands of indigenous as well as migratory birds every year including the world-renowned Siberian Cranes. About one third of the total birds here are migrants many of whom come in winter before returning to their breeding grounds as far away as Siberia and Central Asia. The Sanctuary was given the status of the National Park on 10th March 1982, and was declared a World Heritage Site in December 1985.

Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary is home to over 400 species of unique, exotic and rare birds that include indigenous as well as migratory water birds including the world-famous Siberian Cranes. The sanctuary also shelters some of the rare and endangered species of birds, making it one of the most inviting destinations in the world for ornithologists and nature lovers.

But, the greatest attraction for the bird lovers visiting Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary are undoubtedly, the world-renowned Siberian Cranes, who spend their winters in Bharatpur, the only second habitat for them in the world. Other important and most commonly spotted birds at Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary are Pelicans, Cranes, Ducks, Eagles, Hawks, Pipits, Warblers, Wheatears, Wagtails, Flycatchers, Buntings, Larks, Shanks, Painted storks, Pipits, White Ibis, Cormorants, Pale, Marsh Harriers and Stints to name a few with. Thousands of Moorhens and Jacanas can also be spotted in the floating vegetation on the water surface of the park.

Wildlife Attractions at Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary

The main attractions for tourists visiting the National park/ sanctuary are the migratory birds, which come from Siberia and Central Asia to spend winters in Bharatpur, before returning to their breeding grounds. Some of the important migratory birds at Bharatpur bird sanctuary include numerous species of Cranes, Pelicans, Geese, Ducks, Eagles, Stints, Wagtails, Hawks, Shanks, Warblers, Flycatchers, Buntings, Wheatears, Pipits and Larks.

Flora at Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary representing 64 families, 181 genera and 227 subspecies. Besides, you can spot a wide variety of wild animals including three types of wildcat- the Jungle cat, Leopard cat and Fishing cat-, Sambar, Chital, Chinkara, Blackbuck, Nilgai and wild boar among many others. The Sanctuary is also home to a variety of reptiles including the Rock Pythons, Frogs, Toads, Water Snakes, Snails, Leeches, Turtles, Tortoises, Water Hyacinth, Planktons and more. The Rock Pythons can be spotted at the python point beyond the Keoladeo Temple. In addition, the fresh water marshes, lagoons and bogs in the Bharatpur National Park supports a variety of fish population.

You can also enjoy an exciting boat safari in Bharatpur National Park to explore the natural beauty of the park and spot a variety of colorful and exotic birds. An early morning or a late evening boat ride in the artificial lake of the sanctuary can be an enchanting and rewarding experience for bird watchers. You can also hire a rickshaw to spot birds in the park. Rickshaw drivers have been well trained by the park management and can be quite helpful in your bird spotting adventure.

Best Time to Visit Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary

Bharatpur Wildlife Sanctuary/ National Park is open throughout the year but the ideal visiting months are from August-November for resident birds and October- February for migratory birds.

How to Reach Bharatpur Bird/Wildlife Sanctuary

By Air

The nearest airport is situated at Agra, which is 56-kms from Bharatpur. Delhi is 184Kms from Bharatpur.

By Rail/ Train

Regular rail services connect Bharatpur with all the major cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Jaipur and Agra. The Bharatpur railway station is about 6 Kms from the park/bird sanctuary.

By Road

An excellent network of roads connects Bharatpur to all the major cities of the Rajasthan and the neighboring states like Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana. Bharatpur is well connected by road from Agra (56-kms, 5 hours), Delhi (184-kms, 6 hours) and Jaipur (176-kms, 6 hours).

General Info / Tips for Bharatpur

It is advised that you carry a pair of binoculars for bird watching. A number of factors combine to make bird watching a pleasure. These are season, timing, and patience so it's better to visit the Bharatpur bird sanctuary during the visiting period.

Bharatpur

2009-01-28T05:36:00.000-08:00

Bharatpur is one of the most visited cities in the state of magical Rajasthan, India. The travel site Magical Rajasthan Tours also offers online reservations for Bharatpur City Guide package.

The eastern Gateway to Rajasthan is one of the most important cities in the state of Rajasthan, India. The city of Bharatpur is predominantly known for its Keoladeo Ghana National Park around the globe. The park is also called the Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary.

Dating back to epic era, the city of Bharatpur, Rajasthan, India, has a rich & exotic history. Some archaeological remains of epic period can be seen in the Bharatpur Museum. Bharatpur city is named after Bharat, the brother of Lord Rama. Maharaja Suraj Mal, an adopted son of Badan Singh, founded this city in the year of 1733 AD. Erstwhile this city was an unconquerable fortified city, carved out of the region formerly known as Mewat. Maharaja Suraj Mahal seized the fort of Bharatpur from the rival chief – Khemkaran. Bharatpur wad the stronghold of the Jats in the 17th and 18th century.

Modern Bharatpur is known for its famous Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary – a haven for birds, Bharatpur Palace & Government Museum, Ganga Mandir, Laxman Mandir and Loha Garh Fort – the Iron Fort. Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary is the most popular national parks in India which provide a safe haven for birds. The sanctuary is right place for viewing the various species of birds, Siberian crane, other migratory birds and other wildlife attractions. Ganga Mandir and Laxman Mandir are also worth visiting. Ganga Mandir is architecturally beautiful. This architectural marvel was built by Maharaja Balwant Singh in the year of 1845. Laxman Mandir is dedicated to the younger brother of Lord Rama, Laxman. This temple is also architecturally beautiful built.

The other major attraction of the city of Bharatpur is Loha Garh Fort (the Iron Fort). For the purpose of strength and defense of the city of Bharatpur, the massive Lohagarh Fort was built. The fort was attacked by British for several times. The Lohagarh Fort is known not for its beauty but for power & strength. The fort has a huge gate built with eight metals and decorated with huge elephant paintings. There are some palace in the Lohagarh Fort complex like Khas Mahal, Kishori Mahal, Jawahar Bhuj, Moti Mahal and Fateh Bhuj.

How to get there

By Air:
Nearest airport Agra (54 km) from Bharatpur, Agra has daily flights for Delhi, Bombay, Varanasi (via Khajuraho) and Lucknow

By Rail:
Bharatpur is on the main Delhi - Bombay line with regular connections to Mathura, Sawai Madhopur and Kota on the same route. It is also connected with Agra

By Road:
Bharatpur is well connected by road with Agra, Mathura, Delhi and Jaipur. Regular bus services operate for all major cities.

Road distance to important places from Bharatpur : Agra 55 kms Fatehpur Sikri 22kms Mathura 39kms Delhi 184 kms Jaipur 176 kms Alwar 117 kms.

Sariska National Park

2009-01-28T05:04:00.000-08:00

Sariska Tiger Reserve is well nestled in the Aravali Hills covering 800 sq km area divided into the grasslands, dry deciduous forests, sheer cliffs and rocky landscape. Whether you want to have camel safaris, go out for shopping in the surrounding places, visit medieval palaces or wildlife watching; Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary is the best place for you.

Nearly 90% of the area in the sanctuary is covered with dhok trees accommodating various wildlife species. A variety of other wild animals like the leopard, sambhar, chital, nilgai, four-horned antelope, wild boar, rhesus macaque, langur, hyena and jungle cats are found in the Sariska Tiger Reserve apart from the tiger. The Sariska National Park is home to India's largest population of peafowl, and harbours quail, sand grouse, golden- backed woodpeckers and crested serpent eagles, among other species. Also the Siliserh Lake on the edge of the park has a large number of crocodiles.

The Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary houses the ruins of medieval temples of Garh-Rajor that date back to the 10th and 11th centuries. Also a 17th century castle on a hilltop at Kankwari provides a panoramic view of flying vultures and eagles. The Sariska was declared a sanctuary in 1955 and attained the status of a National Park in 1979.

Sariska park is home to numerous carnivores including Leopard, Wild Dog, Jungle Cat, Hyena, Jackal, and Tiger. These feed on an abundance of prey species such as Sambar, Chitel, Nilgai, Chausingha, Wild Boar and Langur.

About Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary

Sharp cliffs of hills and narrow valleys of the Aravallis dominate the landscape of Sariska, whose forests are dry and deciduous. Within the Sariska wildlife sanctuary there are the ruins of medieval temples of Garh-Rajor, belonging to the 10th and 11th centuries.

A 17th century castle on a sharp hilltop at Kankwari, provides a panoramic view of flying Egyptian vultures and eagles. The area was declared a sanctuary in 1955 and became a National Park in 1979.

Major Wildlife Attractions

Sariska park is home to numerous carnivores including Leopard, Wild Dog, Jungle Cat, Hyena, Jackal, and Tiger. These feed on an abundance of prey species such as Sambar, Chitel, Nilgai, Chausingha, Wild Boar and Langur. Sariska is also well known for its large population of Rhesus Monkeys, which are found in large numbers around Talvriksh.

The avian world is also well represented with a rich and varied birdlife. These include Peafowl, Grey Partridge, Bush Quail, Sand Grouse, Tree Pie, Golden backed Wood Pecker, Crested Serpent Eagle and the Great Indian Horned Owl.

How to Reach

The town closest to Sariska is Alwar, and the park itself lies off the Delhi-Alwar-Jaipur highway, just over 100 km from Jaipur, and about 200 km from Delhi. Alwar, a mere 21 km from Sariska, is the nearest railhead, and has frequent trains from Deeg, Bharatpur, Jaipur and other towns

Best Time To Visit - October to June

Do's and Dont's

Take official guides along with you on the park trip.
Do not disturb the animals during daytime as most of the nocturnal animals sleep during daytime.
Do not try to irritate or annoy the animals by teasing them.
Picking of plants and insects is strictly prohibited.
Do not smoke inside the park.
Do not use flash or intrusive photography.
Walking and hiking within the vicinity of the park is not allowed.
Camping and picnicking is prohibited within the park.
Carry plenty of water along with you.
Wear loose fitting and simple clothes that blend with the park surroundings.

Fairy Queen--The Oldest Working Engine

2009-01-28T04:57:00.000-08:00

It is the oldest working engine in the world. The engine was built in the year 1855 and acquired by the Eastern Indian Railways from a British firm. Now the train is one great means of transportation that departs from the Delhi encampment and reaches its destination at Alwar, in Rajasthan.

The train for its services has won National Tourism Award, which gives a reasonable idea about its importance as well the services rendered by it.

The train travel also comprises travel to the famous wildlife sanctuary of Alwar Sariska National Park. ‘

The train has air-conditioned coaches with the capacity for 50 passengers. The train also has a pantry and features on board catering. The railway department also organizes cultural programs at Sariska, which form a part of the travel. Trips to the wildlife sanctuary score an additional feature

For a peaceful weekend trip between Delhi and Alwar , the Fairy Queen comes to the rescue of those bored with the same old blase ways of traveling around the place.

The Indian Railways are the best option a tourist can ever have while traveling within India to get to know the cultural diversity of the country.

Indian tourism department has tried its level best to present the tourist with a time of their life while travelling in Fairy Queen and the attractions that come with the tour package is certainly hard to resist. First stop is the picturesque town of Alwar in Rajasthan on the day when it departs from Delhi . After departing from Alwar the guests are taken to the Sariska Tiger Reserve for an over night stay. Accommodation provisions are done at the Heritage hotel Sariska Palace and for entertainment there are cultural programs and last but not the least Jeep Safari in the Tiger Sanctuary.

The Fairy Queen with the privileged ones abroad reaches the picturesque town of Alwar in Rajasthan the same day, from where the guests will be taken to Sariska Tiger Reserve for an overnight stay. Milkcake (a kind of sweet) made in Alwar is not only very famous in India but is also exported from the country.

Alwar

2009-01-28T04:49:00.000-08:00

"Alwar" was formerly known as "Ulwar". This placed it in last position in alphabetically ordered lists, so a king renamed it to "Alwar" to bring it to the top.Till the 11 A.D. this area was ruled by a powerful Bargujar Chief. The princely state of Alwar was founded by Pratap Singh, a Rajput of the Kachwaha lineage, in the second half of the 18th century. His adopted son, Bakhtawar Singh, aided the British against the Marathas. After the battle of Laswari (1803), Alwar became the first state of Rajputana to sign a treaty of 'Offensive and Defensive Alliance' with the British East India Company. A few years later, Bakhtawar Singh ventured an armed incursion into neighbouring Jaipur, the senior Kachwaha state, and the erstwhile overlord of his predecessor. Bakhtawar Singh was defeated; a fresh engagement was made with him by the HEIC, prohibiting him from political intercourse with other states without British consent. During the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, Raoraja Bane Singh sent a force comprised mainly of Muslims and Rajputs, to relieve the British garrison in Agra. The Muslims deserted and the rest were defeated by the rebels. Pran Sukh Yadav, who fought beside Rao Tula Ram of Rewari in 1857, settled along with the kinsmen of dead soldiers at Village Nihalpura, Behror Tehsil, of Alwar District. Kishorpura Village of Bansur Tehsil is dominated by Bhati clan of Gurjar Community.

Following the independence of India in 1947, Alwar acceded unto the dominion of India. On March 18, 1948, the state merged with three neighbouring princely states (Bharatpur, Dholpur and Karauli) to form the Matsya Union. This union in turn merged unto the Union of India. On May 15, 1949, it was united with certain other princely states and the territory of Ajmer to form the present-day Indian state of Rajasthan.

Local attractions

The city has a beautiful lake and a picturesque valley.

The Sariska National Sanctuary is a must visit place

Also Oldest Working Engine called Fairy Queen runs here. It departs from the Delhi and reaches its destination at Alwar,Rajasthan

Ajmer

2009-01-28T04:34:00.000-08:00

Ajmer (Ajaya-meru in Sanskrit) was founded in the late seventh century by Dushyant Chauhan. He established the Chauhan dynasty which continued to rule the country while repeated waves of Turkish invasion swept across India. Ajmer was conquered by Muhammad of Ghor, founder of the Delhi Sultanate, in 1193. Its internal government, however, was handed over to the Chauhan rulers upon the payment of a heavy tribute to the conquerors. Ajmer then remained feudatory to Delhi until 1365, when it was captured by the ruler of Mewar. In 1509 Ajmer became a source of contention between the maharajas of Mewar and Marwar, and was ultimately conquered by the Marwar ruler in 1532. Ajmer was conquered by the Mughal emperor Akbar in 1559. It continued to be in the hands of the Mughals, with occasional revolts, till 1770, until it ceded to the Marathas. From that time up to 1818 Ajmer was the scene of an ongoing struggle, being seized at different times by the Mewar and the Marwar maharajas, from whom it was often retaken by the Marathas. In 1818 the Marathas sold Ajmer to the East India Company for 50,000 rupees. Since then Ajmer has enjoyed stable governance even though during the 1857 War of Independence, some Indian sepoys at the garission in the nearby town of Nasirabad joined the revolt. In the British Raj, Ajmer was governed by an Agent to the Governor General overseeing Rajputana. After independence in 1947, Ajmer retained its position as a centrally administrated state under a Chief Commissioner for some time. Ajmer was eventually merged with the State of Rajasthan.

Places of interest

The chief objects of interest are

Pushkar

The Ajmer Dargah

Taragarh Fort

The mammoth Taragarh Fort is one of the major attractions of Ajmer city. The fort overlooks the city and has six entrances. The fort houses Miran-Saheb-ki-Dargah. The gigantic Taragarh Fort offers an excellent view of Ajmer city. The fort has rich history and significant archaeological importance.

Adhai-Din-Ka-Jhopra

A much old-fashioned version of the modern mosques, this Indo-Islamic stunning success was built in 'Adhai Din' meaning 'two and a half days'. It has a front screen wall with seven pointed arches and distinctive pillars and arched screen with ruined minarets.

Ana Sagar Lake

The artificial lake named after Anaji Chauhan is a popular picnic spot for the people of Ajmer. It has a 'Baradari' surrounded by beautiful parks and elegant pavilions. It was built by Shah Jahan to pass time during his long stays in Ajmer. The catchments have strong Rajasthani influence to their constructions as the locals built them.

Weather

Ajmer weather is a typical desert type. In the summer time, the climate of Ajmer is very hot and in winters, it is quite cool. Both in summers as well as in winters, there is a wide difference in the day and night temperature. Regarding the average temperature in summers (from April to June), the maximum is around 45° C. The winters in Ajmer stretch from November to February. The winters of Ajmer are quite chilly. In the monsoon season, the first rain covers the city in green. All the small mountains of the city start becoming green with the first drop of rain. The climatic conditions of Ajmer, Rajasthan are the best during the period of October to March, making it the ideal time to visit the city.

Pushkar

2009-01-28T04:05:00.000-08:00

Pushkar is a sacred town for the Hindus, situated 11 kms. to the North-West of Ajmer. The charm of this sleepy, lakeside settlement so captivated the great Indian poet, Kalidas,that it found a place in his classic, Abhigyan Sakuntalam. The Great Hindu epics of Mahabharat and Ramayana make references to this religious place regarded to be Adi Tiratha. Evidence points to its having existed during the fourth century B.C. lake in the inhospitable surroundings of a desert is no less than a miracle.

The legend about the Creator God, Bramha describes the creation of this lake. When the demon Vajra Nabha killed Brahma's children, he in turn struck him with his weapon, a lotus flower. Vajra Nabha died with the impact, and the petals of the lotus fell at three places. One of them is Pushkar, where a lake sprung into being. Brahma is supposed to have performed sacrifice at this lake on Kartik Purnima (the full moon day of the Kartik month), hallowing the place. Sacred to Brahma, Pushkar boasts of its temple dedicated to him, which is the only one of its kind in the world. A dip in the waters of Pushkar and worship at his temple ensure salvation. So thousands flock to Pushkar to observe the ritual on kartik Purnima, or on any of the four days preceding it.

Pushkar boasts temples, though few are as ancient as you might expect at such an important pilgrimage site, since many were destroyed by Aurangzeb, a Mogul ruler and subsequently rebuilt. The most famous is the Brahma Temple, said to be the only temple in the world dedicated to this deity. It stands on a high plinth with the Marble steps leading up to it. A silver turtle is set on the floor facing the Sanctum-Sanctorum or Girbha-griha. Around the turtle the Marble floor is inset with hundreds of silver coins. Coins engraved with donors names are also embedded in the walls. Peacocks adorn the temple walls as they are supposed to be the vehicle of lord Brahma's consort Saraswati. A small image of the milkmaid Gayatri, flanks the four-faced image of lord Brahma and is called Chaumurti The sanctuary has silver doors inside a carved marble gateway.

Savitri Temple

The one-hour trek up to the hilltop Savitri Temple overlooking the lake is best made early in the morning; the view is magical.

Varah Temple

Originally built in the 12th century, Varah Temple was, like many others, destroyed by the bigoted Emperor Aurangzeb (who, it is said , was particularly upset by the huge idol here of Varah, the god with the body of a man and the head of the boar.) Reconstructed BY Raja Sawai Jai Singh II of Jaipur in 1727, the temple has an interesting and richly ornamented image house.

Mahadeva Temple

A Beautiful temple built in the 19th century, it was described by a British traveler of the time as "by far the most remarkable, for the elegance of its structure and the nature of its ornaments, of all the temples Pushkar boasts of." It is also noteworthy for its white marble Mahadeva image, with its five faces (and its traditional tufts of hair).

Ramavaikunth Temple
One of Pushkar's largest and most intricate temples, the Ramavaikunth Temple was built in the 1920's and has beautifully sculpted images of no less than 361 different deities. The ornate outer gopuram over the entrance is said to have been built by a team of masons specially brought here from south India.

Lake and Ghats

Many Ghats run down to the Holy Lake where pilgrims are constantly bathing in the holy waters. Joining people at the ghats has to be with some respect for their culture and privacy. And for this reason, removing shoes before approaching the ghats, no smoking and restraining from photographing bathing people is well avoided. The Pilgrims here are sensitive about comments by non-Hindus. The famed waters of the Pushkar lake wash away the sins of a lifetime.

The mystical water is also believed to cure skin diseases, making Pushkar the Lourdes of the East.

Pushkar Fair - Rituals and Traditions

These five days are a period of relaxation and merry-making for the villagers, despite being the busiest for them, as this is one of the largest cattle fairs in the country. Animals, mainly camels, are brought from miles around. Trading is brisk as several thousand heads of cattle exchange hands. All the camels are cleaned, washed, adorned, some are interestingly shorn to form patterns, and special stalls are set up selling finery and jewelry for the camels. Camels at the Pushkar fair are decorated with great care. They wear jewelry of silver and beads. There are silver bells and bangles around their ankles that jingle-jangle when they walk. An interesting ritual is the piercing of a camel's nose.

Races and competitions are organized. Camels lope across the sands sometimes throwing their riders on to the vast sands, amidst cheers and jeers from thousands of spectators. An interesting event is the camel beauty contest, where they are adorned and paraded. The camels preen before the crowds, enjoying every moment of the attention they get.

It is believed that for five days every year, all the gods visit Pushkar and bless the devout. This accounts for the unbelievable number of devotees who flock to the lake to wash away their sins.

Climate

Pushkar has an extreme climate. The maximum temperature during the summers can go up to 40-45°C while in the winters it can be below 10°C. There is not much rain during the monsoon. The best season to visit this place is in the winters (October to March).

Ajmer Dargah Shariff-- Hazrat Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti

2009-01-28T03:51:00.000-08:00

Dargah Shariff of Hazrat Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti is indeed an ornament to the city of Ajmer. It is one of the holiest places of worship in India not only for the Muslims but also for the people of other faiths who hold the saint the high esteem and reverence. As mentioned previously. The Khwaja Saheb, as a ‘living spirit’ of peace and harmony, enjoys universal respect and devotion ever since he set his holy feet on the soil of Hindustan.

He has unquestionably been one of the greatest spiritual redeemers of human sufferings. To the faithful and afflicted souls invoking his blessing, he has ever been a never-failing source of moral strength and spiritual enlightenment. Apart from the common people, even the mighty kings of India, both Hindu and Muslim, have paid submissive homage to the great saint and have sought his miraculous aid to solve their problems. The precious buildings and various rich endowments dedicated to the Dargah of Khwaja Saheb are living memorials to and reminders of his continued patronage enjoyed by the people of India throughout the past 750 years.

In year 2008 the 794th Urs of the Master was celebrated. Scholars agree that the probable date of Khwaja saheb’s birth is around April 1143 A.D.( Hijri 537).He was born in village Sanjar of the Sistan province of present Iran.Is father’s name was Ghyas-ud-din Hassan and his mother’s name was Bibi Mah-e-noor.At the tender age of 14,he lost his mother and then his father in quick succession.Khwaja saheb is also known as “Sanjari” as his ancestors belonged to Sanjar.Khwaja Ishaq Shami,one of his predecessors settled in a hamlet called Chishti near Hirat.Hence the sect is also called Chishti.

He had two wives-Bibi Umutullah and Bibi Asmat.He was blessed with two sons- Fakhruddin and Hisamuddin. According to some historians however,he had only one daughter-Bibi Hafiza Jamal.

It is believed that Khwaja Saheb had a vision of Ajmer in a dream while in Madina, and he also received the spiritual inspiration to come here.Khwaja saheb lived the life of a saint and a renuncient.He renounced all worldly desires refraining from even a full meal.After spending a number of days without a morsel,the master would then have a few dry rotis, dipped in water. It is said that the saint spent his entire life wearing just one garment. When his apparel would give way,he would simply hem a patch over the torn place.So many patches were sewn in to the cloth that when it was weighed after his demise, it turned out to be 12.5 sers( 11.265 Kgs.)

Khwaja saheb could read the entire Quran Sharif twice in twenty four hours.After namaz at night,he would enter his Hujra and would remain immersed in the cosmic bliss the whole night.At day break,he would emerge again from his humble abode.
The saint left his mortal frame in 1233 A.D.( Hijri 633) after attaining the age of 97 years.Centuries after his demise, his teachings are still a source of guidance and inspiration for mankind.

Rajasthan

2009-01-28T02:26:00.000-08:00

Rajasthan is a wonderful land of praiseworthy history and culture. It is a land where the awe-inspiring legends of heroism and romance still resonate from its equally amazing architectures. Rajasthan is a land where historical monuments still stand to tell the tale of the bygone era. The magical land of Rajasthan exhibits splendor and royalty in every walk of life. The fascination of Rajasthan is unparallel in the world for its legacy, traditions, culture, safaris, sand dunes and lush green forests with its wildlife. It is truly said that Rajasthan is a huge open-air museum with artifact so well preserved for the travelers and the inquisitive of the day.

Rajasthan is a destination where one can find wonderful blend of natural beauty, amazing history and amazing lifestyle of Rajasthani people seeped in an age-old tradition. The magical land of Rajasthan is gifted with invincible forts, magnificient palaces, waves of sand dunes and serene lakes. Rajasthan is a destination which enchants the visitors with its magical charm. In fact, everything about Rajasthan is breathtakingly amazing. It offers everything what a tourist can ask for?

History of Rajasthan

Among 28 states of the sub-continent of India Rajasthan is one. The capital of Rajasthan is Jaipur which is also popularly known as the Pink City. The history of Rajasthan is so rich that every roadside village has its own tales of heroism and sacrifice.

Ancient Period, up to 1200 AD

During the period of 700 AD Rajput clans emerged and began to spread their influence and hold control over different parts of Rajasthan. Before emergence of Rajput clans, Rajasthan was a part of several small states. It was a part of Mauryan Empire. Malavas, Hunas, Guptas, Satraps, Saka, Kushans, Yaudhyas, Arjunyas, Malavas are some other republics which dominated this region.

In the history of Rajput clans dominance was during the period from the 8th to the 12th century AD. During the period of 750-1000 AD, Rajasthan and most of northern India was ruled by the Pratihars. During the period of 1000-1200 AD, the historical land of Rajasthan witnessed the struggle for dominance between Chlukyas, Chauhans and Parmars.

Medieval Period, 1201 - 1707

During period of 1200 AD major part of Rajasthan came under Muslim rulers. Nagaur and Ajmer were main centres of their powers. Ranthambhor was also under their control. From the beginning of the 13th century Mewar was emerged as the most powerful and prominent state of Rajasthan.

Modern Period, 1707 - 1947

Before the domination of Mughal emperor Akbar, Rajasthan had politically never been united. It was Akbar who established a united province of Rajasthan. The declination of Mughal power started after 1707. On the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Marathas entered Rajasthan.

In 1755 Marathas controlled over Ajmer. During this period the Pindaris also attacked Rajasthan. In 1817-18 the British Government concluded agreements of alliance with almost all the stated of Rajputana. This British established their rule over Rajasthan and that time Rajasthan was called Rajputana.

Before independence Rajasthan was called as Rajputana. After independence in 1947 it attained its present name Rajasthan.

Culture of Rajasthan

When we talk about Rajasthan at first come in our mind is its proud culture. Our discussion is incomplete without paying some words for its culture. Rajasthan is globally known for its rich and proud culture. In fact, one of the most prime reasons why Rajasthan is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world is no doubt its rich and proud culture. The desert state of Rajasthan is best known for its exotic and rich culture that still remains intact. Its strict devotion to the tradition and culture is really noteworthy. Rajasthani people are very fond of colourful costumes. Rajasthani men’s love for colourful turbans and Rajasthani women’s love for ornaments like colourful bangles, anklet, armlet, rings and earrings as well as full Ghaghra (Skirt) are well-known.

Everything of Rajasthan like interesting paintings, soulful music, colourful handicrafts, folk dance & music, religion, resplendent fairs & festivals and breathtaking art & architecture show the rich culture of Rajasthan.

Hindi is widely spoken in all over in Rajasthan but there are also local dialects in Rajasthan. These are Jaipuri, Marwari, Mewati, Malwi and Rajasthani. There are also English speaking people in the cities of Rajasthan. Hindi is the official language of Rajasthan.

Music and Dance are the important part of Rajasthani culture. For the Rajasthani people celebration is a way of life. Every region of Rajasthan has its own music and dance. The Kalbeliya dance from Jaisalmer and Ghoomer dance from Udaipur are well-known around the world and have universally fame. Folk music and folk dance are the vital part of Rajasthani culture. Folk music and folk dance show the past glory, legends, chivalry and history of the region.

Fairs and festivals of Rajasthan are the best way to experience the exotic culture of Rajasthan. Fairs and festivals of Rajasthan such as Desert Festival, Pushkar Festival, etc, add more colours and liveliness to the lives of Rajasthani people. Most of the festivals in Rajasthan include exotic activities like camel & elephant processions, camel & elephant races, folk performance and many more.

Apart from fairs and festivals of Rajasthan, forts and palaces of Rajasthan also show the exotic culture of Rajasthan and narrate the saga of bygone era. Really the desert land of Rajasthan is a perfect place for culture vultures.

Handicrafts of Rajasthan

One of the most colourful regions in India Rajasthan is a land which is endowed with invincible forts, splendid palaces, waves of sand dunes and serene lakes. One can observe an unusual diversity in the state of Rajasthan in its all forms – life style of people, culture, traditions, customs, costumes, cuisine, dialects and music. But Rajasthan is famous not only for its magnificent monuments but also for handicrafts.

Popularity of Rajasthani handicrafts is not only in India but also all over the world. The handicrafts of Rajasthan are famous for its variety, the use of lively colours, exception artistic work which all show the tradition and culture of Rajasthan.

Some of important Rajasthani Handicrafts are following

Wooden Handcrafted Furniture: - Rajasthan is famous for wooden handcrafted furniture. Specially, Barmer and Jodhpur are famous for the craft of wooden furniture. Kishangarh and Shekhawati have their own style of ornate furniture.

Blue Pottery: - Rajasthan is famous for blue pottery articles. Blue pottery is an art which has its origins in Persia. Some blue pottery articles are flower base, surahis, pots and jars, lampstands, doorknobs and other household items.

Metal Crafts: - Rajasthan is also famous for metal crafts. During one’s Rajasthan tour one can see and purchase various type of beautiful metal craft items such as figurines, pill boxes, brass enameled swords & shields and other useful items.

Textile: - Rajasthan is popular for its die technique. Dyed and block printed fabric of Rajasthan are very popular.

Jewelry: - The desert land of Rajasthan is rich in jewelry. Every region of Rajasthan has its own unique style of wearing ornaments. In the state of Rajasthan men are also very fond of ornaments as well as women. During one’s Rajasthan tour one can see and purchase traditional Rajasthani jewelry.

Leather-ware: - Rajasthan is famous for designer Jooties with embroidered uppers, designer leather hand bags and other leather items.

Miniature paintings: - Rajasthan is also famous for its exotic paintings. The paintings of Rajasthan are lively and multi-hued.

People of Rajasthan

The Rajasthanis are energetic people who have tendency to enjoy every moment of life. They know how to enjoy their life better. Their life is full of happiness which is filled by the enchanting fairs and festivals that they celebrate with full zeal & cheerfulness. Generally Rajasthanis are simple. They are untouched with the fast pace of modern times. These factors make Rajasthan one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world.

Rajasthani women are famous for their gorgeousness and beauty. The beauty of legendary Maharani Padmini Devi of Chittaurgarh and Maharai Gayatri Devi, present day Rajmata of Jaipur is famous all over the world. History says that Alauddin Khilji, the Sultan of Delhi, was so obsessed with the beauty of Maharani Padmini Devi that he attacked over the Chittaurgarh for her hand but he did not succeed.

Maharani Gayatri Devi was considered to be amongst the ten most beautiful women in the world in her heydays. And her beauty has not reduced one bit till today. Rajasthani women are symbol of truth, dignity and beauty.

Rajasthani women are very fond of colourful clothes and jewellery. Like women Rajasthani men are also very fond of colourful costumes and jewellery. Each category of Rajasthani people either they are village folks or Rajas & Ranis; they love to put on colourful costumes and wear jewellery.

Rajasthan men folk are very fond of Turban tying. They wear colourful Turban on their head. Turban tying is a unique practice of Rajasthan. There are about more than 1000 different styles and types of Turbans in Rajasthan. It is said that at every 1 km the style and type of turban becomes changed.

People use specific turbans on specific occasions. In past years, the profession of the people decided the caste of the people. Rajasthan is a land where people of various castes and sub-castes reside. Rajputs are the major residents of Rajasthan. The other castes of Rajputs are Brahmins and Vaishyas.

Some broad categories in which the people of Rajasthan can be classified:

Rajput – The Warrior Class
Brahmins – The Priest Class
Marwari and Jains – The Trader Class
Jats and Bishnois – The Pastoral Class
Muslims – The Craftsman Class
The Tribals
Nomads – The people with no homes

Climate Of Rajasthan

The climate of Rajasthan varies with the seasons of the year. There are fours seasons in Rajasthan – summer, monsoon, post-monsoon and winter. In summer the weather of Rajasthan is very hot and in winter very chilly.

Summer – April to June
Monsoon – Late June to September
Post-monsoon – October to November
Winter – December to March

Except summer the magical land of Rajasthan can be visited any time through the year. But the best time to visit Rajasthan is during the month of winter when the climate of Rajasthan is very pleasant. Visiting Rajasthan in monsoon is also a unique experience. One can enjoy the best of natural beauty of Rajasthan on camel safari in Rajasthan desert only in monsoon.
Mount Abu, the only hill station of Rajasthan, can be visited in summer. Mount Abu has very pleasant and cool climate through the year even in summer.

Places To Visit in Rajasthan

Ajmer
Alwar
Bikaner
Bharatpur
Jaipur
Jaisalmer
Jodhpur
Udaipur

Some Frequently Visited Sites in Rajasthan

Amber Fort
Bishnoi Village
Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary
Bundi Fort
City Palace
Dargah of Khwaja Garib Nawaz Ajmer
Deeg Palace
Dilwara Temple
Hawa Mahal
Jaisalmer Fort
Jal Mahal
Kumbalgarh
Mehrangarh Fort
Puskar
Ranakpur Jain Temples
Ranthambore National Park
Shekhawati Havelis
Sariska National Park

Important Telephone Numbers

Click Image to view larger size

Govt. Tourist Offices

Click Image to view larger size

Common Dos and Don'ts for Rajasthan Travel

• Don't forget to lock your hotel room before going outside for the purpose of sightseeing or shopping.

• Never take a lift from a person you don't know. Women and those who are roaming around after dark should specially follow this advice.

• Whenever you go out of your hotel room, do not carry excess cash with you.

• Also, keep your jewelry and other expensive items locked in your hotel room, along with your passport and return tickets.

• Don't allow any unknown person to enter into your hotel room.

• Always prefer to take taxis and auto rickshaws from prepaid booths or kiosks. In the other case, negotiate on the fare beforehand only.

• Don't check into a hotel or guesthouse suggested by the taxi or auto rickshaw driver.

• Do not consume drinks or eatables offered any an unknown person.

• Go for shopping only in reputed or respectable shops.

• Exchange your currency only from authorized money exchangers and don't forget to take a receipt.

• It is advisable not to wear too revealing or scanty clothing.

• Don't stay out after it gets too dark.

Late Middle Kingdoms — The Classical Age

2009-01-27T03:47:00.000-08:00

Late Middle Kingdoms Consisted of following Kingdoms

Harsha
Western Chalukya Empire
Pratihara
Pala Empire
Eastern Ganga dynasty
Rashtrakuta Empire
Rajputs
Hoysala Empire
Kalachuri
Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri
Kakatiya dynasty
Madurai Nayak Dynasty
Shahi
Vijayanagara Empire

The classical age in India began with the Guptas and the resurgence of the north during Harsha's conquests around the 7th century, and ended with the fall of the Vijayanagar Empire in the South, due to pressure from the invaders to the north in the 13th century. This period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical development, and the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism

King Harsha of Kannauj succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign in the 7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty. His kingdom collapsed after his death. From the 7th to the 9th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Pratiharas of Malwa and later Kannauj, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala kingdom, and the Pratiharas fragmented into various states. These were the first of the Rajputs, a series of kingdoms which managed to survive in some form for almost a millennium until Indian independence from the British. The first recorded Rajput kingdoms emerged in Rajasthan in the 6th century, and small Rajput dynasties later ruled much of northern India. One Rajput of the Chauhan clan, Prithvi Raj Chauhan, was known for bloody conflicts against the encroaching Islamic Sultanates. The Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-seventh century to the early eleventh century. Whilst the northern concept of a pan-Indian empire had collapsed at the end of Harsha's empire, the ideal instead shifted to the south. The Chalukya Empire ruled parts of southern and central India from 550 to 750 from Badami, Karnataka and again from 970 to 1190 from Kalyani, Karnataka. The Pallavas of Kanchi were their contemporaries further to the south. With the decline of the Chalukya empire, their feudatories, Hoysalas of Halebidu, Kakatiya of Warangal, Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri and a southern branch of the Kalachuri divided the vast Chalukya empire amongst themselves around the middle of 12th century. Later during the middle period, the Chola kingdom emerged in northern Tamil Nadu, and the Chera kingdom in Kerala. By 1343, all these kingdoms had ceased to exist giving rise to the Vijayanagar empire. Southern Indian kingdoms of the time expanded their influence as far as Indonesia, controlling vast overseas empires in Southeast Asia. The ports of South India were involved in the Indian Ocean trade, chiefly involving spices, with the Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east.Literature in local vernaculars and spectacular architecture flourished till about the beginning of the 14th century when southern expeditions of the sultan of Delhi took their toll on these kingdoms. The Hindu Vijayanagar dynasty came into conflict with Islamic rule (the Bahmani Kingdom) and the clashing of the two systems, caused a mingling of the indigenous and foreign culture that left lasting cultural influences on each other. The Vijaynagar Empire eventually declined due to pressure from the first Delhi Sultanates who had managed to establish themselves in the north, centered around the city of Delhi by that time.

Gupta Empire - The Golden Age of India (A.D. 320-550)

2009-01-27T03:13:00.000-08:00

The Gupta period marks an important phase in the history of ancient India. The long and efficient rule of the Guptas made a huge impact on the political, social and cultural spheres. Though the Gupta Empire was not as widespread as the Mauryan Empire was in India, yet the Gupta dynasty was successful in creating an empire that is significant in the history of India. The Gupta Period is also popularly known as the Golden Age of India and for the right reasons. The lifestyle and culture of the Gupta dynasty is known through the availability of various ancient coins, scriptures, inscriptions, texts, etc. belonging to that era.

The rulers of the Gupta Empire were efficient administrators who knew how to govern with a firm hand without being despotic. During this age, art and education flourished and many great discoveries were made in these fields. Aryabhatta and Varahamihira, the two great mathematicians contributed much during this period in the field of Vedic Mathematics. Aryabhatta estimated the value of "Pi" to the fourth decimal place. Algebra was developed to a great extent and the concepts of zero and infinity were found. The symbols of numbers 1 to 9 were devised which was a great contribution in mathematics. These symbols came to be known as Hindu Arabic numerals later when the Arabs too adopted them.

The Gupta Age is also known for its advances in astronomy. During the reign of the Gupta rulers, astronomers and philosophers proposed the theory that the earth was not flat but round. The theory of gravity was also propounded during this time. The astronomers made a breakthrough when they found out the different planets and started to make horoscopes based on the planetary positions. The field of medicine also advanced a lot during this time and doctors used to perform operations even during that era. Since so many discoveries and advances were made in arts, medicine, literature and science during Gupta period, it has been called the Golden Age of India

Rulers of Gupta Empire

Chandra Gupta I (319 - 335 AD)
Samudra Gupta (335 - 380 AD)
Chandra Gupta II (380 - 415 AD)
Kumara Gupta I (415 - 445 AD)
Skanda Gupta (445 - 480 AD)

Chandra Gupta I (319 - 335 AD)

A Magadha raja named Chandra Gupta -- who was unrelated to the Chandragupta of six centuries before -- controlled rich veins of iron from the nearby Barabara Hills. Around the year 308 he married a princess from the neighboring kingdom of Licchavi, and with this marriage he gained a hold over the flow of northern India's commerce on the Ganges River -- the major flow of north Indian commerce. In 319, Chandra Gupta created for himself the title King of Kings (Maharajadhiraja), and he extended his rule westward to Prayaga, in north-central India.

Samudra Gupta (335 - 380 AD)

Samudragupta was the son and successor of Chandragupta. Samudragupta was popularly known as the "Indian Napoleon" as he conquered many territories without making much of an effort. It is said that after Emperor Ashoka, the empire of Samudragupta was the supreme.He performed the Asvamedha Yagna and gained much fame and power. During his reign, many great discoveries and advancements were made in different fields like astronomy, mathematics, medicine, etc

Chandra Gupta II (380 - 415 AD)

Also known by the name of Vikramaditya, Chandragupta II was chosen by his father as the successor and the future ruler.He extended Gupta rule to India's west coast, where new ports were helping India's trade with countries farther west. His rule influenced local powers beyond the Indus River and north to Kashmir. While Rome was being overrun and the western half of the Roman Empire was disintegrating, Gupta rule was at the apex of its grandeur, prospering in agriculture, crafts and trade. Unlike the Mauryas, who had controlled trade and industry, the Guptas let people free to pursue wealth and business, and prosperity in the Guptan era exceeded that of the Mauryan era.

Many Indians were pursuing pleasure and enjoying life. In the cities were wealthy and middle class people who enjoyed their gardens, music, dancing, plays and various other entertainment. They enjoyed a daily bath, artistic and social activities and a variety of food, including rice, bread, fish, milk, fruits and juices. And despite religious prohibitions, the Indians -- especially the aristocrats -- drank wine and stronger alcoholic beverages.

Greater wealth accrued to those who already had wealth, and the middle class prospered. Big estates grew with the help of dependent labor and slave labor. The poor stayed poor, but apparently there was little dire want. The caste system still existed. So too did the inferior status of women. But charities abounded. The Gupta kings were autocrats who liked to think of themselves as servants to all their subjects. Hospitals offered care free of charge to everyone, rich and poor. There were rest houses for travelers along India's highways, and the capital possessed an excellent, free hospital created by the charity of the wealthy.

Although the Gupta's were more organized in their administrations, with the increase in prosperity had come a greater liberality. The cruel punishments of Mauryan times had been abolished. People no longer had to register with government authorities or carry a passport when traveling within the empire. The government operated without the system of espionage often practiced by Roman emperors and by Mauryan rulers. Law breaking was punished without death sentences -- mainly by fines. Punishments such as having one's hand cut off were applied only against obstinate, professional criminals.

Among civilians, the avoidance of killing that had been a part of Buddhism and Jainism was widely observed. Across India most people had become vegetarians, except for fish which was widely consumed in Bengal and places to its south. And unlike parts of the Roman Empire, a traveler in India had little reason to fear robbery. A visitor from China, Fa-hien, traveled about in India for eleven years and recorded that he was never molested or robbed.

Kumara Gupta I (415 - 445 AD)

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I. Known as the Mahendraditya, he ruled until 455. Towards the end of his reign a tribe in the Narmada valley, the Pushyamitras, rose in power to threaten the empire.

Skanda Gupta (445 - 480 AD)

Skandagupta is generally considered the last of the great rulers. He defeated the Pushyamitra threat, but then was faced with invading Hephthalites or "White Huns", known in India as the Huna, from the northwest. He repulsed a Huna attack c. 477, But the expense of the wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline. Skandagupta died in 487 and was succeeded by his son Narasimhagupta Baladitya

Legacy of the Gupta Empire

Scholars of this period include Aryabhatta, who is believed to be the first to come up with the concept of zero, postulated the theory that the Earth moves round the Sun, and studied solar and lunar eclipses, and Kalidasa, who was a great playwright, who wrote plays such as Shakuntala, which is said to have inspired Goethe, and marked the highest point of Sanskrit literature.

The most significant achievements of this period, however, were in religion, education, mathematics, art, Sanskrit literature and drama, and Kama Sutra, the principles of pleasure. Hinduism witnessed a crystallization of its components: major sectarian deities, image worship, devotionalism, and the importance of the temple. Education included grammar, composition, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, medicine, and astronomy. These subjects became highly specialized and reached an advanced level. The Indian numeral system, i.e the decimal system which is currently in use; sometimes erroneously attributed to the Arabs, who took it from India to Europe where it replaced the Roman system—and the decimal system are Indian inventions of this period. Aryabhatta's expositions on astronomy in 499, moreover, gave calculations of the solar year and the shape and movement of astral bodies with remarkable accuracy.

In medicine, the Guptas were notable for their establishment and patronage of free hospitals. And although progress in physiology and biology was hindered by religious injunctions against contact with dead bodies, which discouraged dissection and anatomy, Indian physicians excelled in pharmacopoeia, cesarean section, bone setting, and skin grafting. Indeed Hindu medical advances were soon adopted in the Arab and Western worlds.The great universities in central and eastern India received an influx of students from many parts of the world. Most notable were the universities of Nalanda and Vikramasila.

Contributions to the world and achievements

Gupta astronomers also made many advances in astronomy by using their mathematical breakthroughs. It was during this empire that philosophers in India first proposed that the earth was not flat but was instead round and rotated on an axis by viewing a lunar eclipses. They also made discoveries about gravity and the planets of the solar system, which they used to tell the horoscopes.

Chess originated in Gupta India, where its early form in the 6th century was known as caturaṅga, which translates as "four divisions [of the military]" – infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry, represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively. Doctors also invented several medical instruments, and even performed operations.

Indian numerals which is the first positional base 10 numeral systems in the world have originated from Gupta India.

Kama Sutra the ancient Gupta text is widely considered to be the standard work on human sexual behavior in Sanskrit literature written by the Indian scholar Vatsyayana. These ideas spread throughout the world through trade

Gupta Homes

In the villages and towns, homes were mostly one room huts made of wood or bamboo, with thatched roofs. Even the palaces were made of wood! Larger homes had several rooms and balconies.

Gupta villages

Streets between the homes were narrow and twisted. Stalls for selling things were located on both sides of the street. People mostly walked where they wanted to go inside their village. Villages were very noisy places. Not only were they full of happy, busy people, they were full of animals.

Art

The craftsmen worked with iron and copper. Their iron work, especially, was outstanding. Even today, statues exist from this period, made of iron, that show very little rust.

Jobs

People worked on roads and other public works, but, (as they were in ancient Egypt), they were paid for their work. In the Gupta Empire, wheat was the main crop, and they kept cows for milk. This civilization produced great works of literature and marvelous works of art. Sculpture was their thing, though. They were very good at it.

Food Habbits

The concept of breakfast did not exist. In earlier times, meals were both vegetarian and non-vegetarian, depending upon your religious beliefs. After the coming of Buddhism, Jainism and other pacifist religion and reforms in Hinduism, vegetarian food (strictly excluding animal and fish meat) became the norm for as much as half of the population. In the Gupta Empire, they mostly ate vegetables, cereals, fruits, breads, and drank milk.

Education

Older kids, who went to school, lived at school. School (ashram) life was tough. You had to do everything yourself. There were no servants. Even princes had to wash their clothes, cook their food, and follow a rigorous course of studies. They had a lot to learn. They studied math, science, engineering, literature, art, music and religion.

Marriages

In ancient India, the most popular form of marriage was called Swayamvara. In this type of marriage, potential grooms assembled at the bride's house and the bride selected her spouse. Instances of Swayamvara ceremony are found in India's national epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata. There were other types of marriage as well, such as Gandharva Vivaha (love marriage) and Asura Viviha (marriage by abduction).

Sports and Games

Ancient Indians invented many of the games we play today, like chess, polo, and playing cards (which are said to have gone from India to the other parts of our globe). They practiced martial arts, wrestling, and fencing. Hunting was also a favorite pastime of the nobility.

Clothing

Northern India: In the north, Ancient Indians wore (some still wear) an unstitched garment called dhoti. This was a 9 meter long cloth that was draped around the legs and tied at the abdomen. Both sexes wore it the same way. Women wore bright colours. Men wore either white or dark colors.

Ancient Indians did not use banks, so the family "fortune" was worn by the Vaishnav women in the northern half of India. In the north, they wore lots of jewelry. It was used both by men and women. Jewelry included armbands, waist belts, leg and ankle bangles for both sexes, ear rings, nose rings, rings on fingers and toes, crowns and other hair adornments.

Southern India

In the south, however, ancient scriptures describe women as wearing saris. A sari is a single cloth wrapped around the body. It covers the woman from head to toe. A dhoti is less modest. In ancient times, it was considered very important for women to be covered from the neck down to the feet. The southern half of India has been almost exclusively Shaivite for thousands of years. Shaivites typically have very, very few possessions. A Shaivite woman would not have worn such jewelry. Shaivite men have typically worn only a loin cloth and perhaps a cloth on the head to protect from the sun, never jewelry.

Medicine

Gupta physicians developed herbal remedies to treat various illnesses.They also developed a form of plastic surgery for the treatment of facial injuries. Physicians vaccinated against smallpox, a practice later used in China (10th century) and Europe (17th century.)

Arts & Literature

Gupta architecture was dedicated to building stone temples to the various Hindu gods. Also, Buddhists built shrines to house the remains of select holy people.These structures were called Stupas. This form of architecture made its way to China where it was altered slightly and renamed the pagoda.

Gupta literature consists of fables and folktales written in Sanskrit. These stories spread west to Persia, Egypt, and Greece, and became the basis for many Islamic literary works such as, Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves and Aladdin and his Magic Lamp.

Decline and Fall

Chandra Gupta II died in 415 and was succeeded by his son, Kumara Gupta, who maintained India's peace and prosperity. During his forty-year reign the Gupta Empire remained undiminished. Then -- as was the Roman Empire around this time -- India suffered more invasions. Kumara Gupta's son, the crown prince, Skanda Gupta, was able to drive the invaders, the Hephthalites, back, into the Sassanian Empire, where they were to defeat the Sassanid army and kill the Sassanid king, Firuz.

In India, women and children sang praises to Skanda Gupta. Skanda Gupta succeeded his father in 455. Then the Hephthalites returned, and he spent much of his reign of twenty-five years combating them, which drained his treasury and weakened his empire. Skanda Gupta died in 467, and after a century and a half the cycle of rise and disintegration of empire turned again to disintegration. Contributing to this was dissention within the royal family. Benefiting from this dissention, governors of provinces and feudal chieftains revolted against Gupta rule. For awhile the Gupta Empire had two centers: at Valabhi on the western coast and at Pataliputra toward the east. Seeing weakness, the Hephthalites invaded India again -- in greater number. Just before the year 500, the Hephthalites took control of the Punjab. After 515, they absorbed the Kashmir, and they advanced into the Ganges Valley, the heart of India, raping, burning, massacring, blotting out entire cities and reducing fine buildings to rubble. Provinces and feudal territories declared their independence, and the whole of north India became divided among numerous independent kingdoms. And with this fragmentation India was again torn by numerous small wars between local rulers.

Roman Trade With India

2009-01-26T04:29:00.000-08:00

Roman trade with India started around 1 CE following the reign of Augustus and his conquest of Egypt, theretofore India's biggest trade partner in the West.

The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept increasing, and according to Strabo (II.5.12), by the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India. So much gold was used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the Kushans for their own coinage.

Roman trade diaspora frequented the ancient Tamil country (present day Southern India), securing trade with the seafaring Tamil kingdoms of the Chola, Pandyan and Chera dynasties and establishing trading settlements which remained long after the fall of the Western Roman empire. They also outlasted Byzantium's loss of the Egypt and the Red Sea ports (ca. 639-645 CE) under the pressure of Jihad and Islam, which had been used to secure trade with India by the Greco-Roman world since the time of the Ptolemaic dynasty a few decades before the start of the Common Era

Northwestern Hybrid Cultures

2009-01-26T04:04:00.000-08:00

The north-western hybrid cultures of the subcontinent included the Indo-Greeks, the Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians, and the Indo-Sassinids. The first of these, the Indo-Greek Kingdom, founded when the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius invaded the region in 180 BCE, extended over various parts of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. Lasting for almost two centuries, it was ruled by a succession of more than 30 Greek kings, who were often in conflict with each other. The Indo-Scythians were a branch of the Indo-European Sakas (Scythians), who migrated from southern Siberia first into Bactria, subsequently into Sogdiana, Kashmir, Arachosia, Gandhara and finally into India; their kingdom lasted from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. Yet another kingdom, the Indo-Parthians (also known as Pahlavas) came to control most of present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, after fighting many local rulers such as the Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the Gandhara region. The Sassanid empire of Persia, who were contemporaries of the Guptas, expanded into the region of present-day Pakistan, where the mingling of Indian and Persian cultures gave birth to the Indo-Sassanid culture.

The Chola Empire

2009-01-26T03:26:00.000-08:00

The Chola Dynasty was a Tamil dynasty that ruled primarily in southern India until the 13th century. The dynasty originated in the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. Karikala Chola was the most famous among the early Chola kings, while Rajaraja Chola, Rajendra Chola I and Kulothunga Chola I were notable emperors of the medieval Cholas.

The Cholas were at the height of their power continuously from the later half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th centuries. Under Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in Asia. During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganga and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully invaded kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago.

The power of the Cholas declined around the 12th century with the rise of the Pandyas and the Hoysala, eventually coming to an end towards the end of the 13th century.

The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in building temples have resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity. They pioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy.

Nature of government

In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India was, for the first time, brought under a single government, when a serious attempt was made to face and solve the problems of public administration. The Cholas' system of government was monarchical, as in the Sangam age.
Thanjavur, and later, Gangaikonda Cholapuram were the imperial capitals. However both Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals, in which occasional courts were held. The king was the supreme commander and a benevolent dictator

His administrative role consisted of issuing oral commands to responsible officers when representations were made to him. A powerful bureaucracy assisted the king in the tasks of administration and in executing his orders. Due to the lack of a legislature or a legislative system in the modern sense, the fairness of king’s orders dependent on the goodness of the man and in his belief in Dharma—a sense of fairness and justice.

The Chola kings built temples and endowed them with great wealth. The temples acted not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity, benefiting their entire community

Local government

Every village was a self-governing unit. A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a Kurram, Nadu or Kottram, depending on the area. A number of Kurrams constituted a valanadu. These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period.

Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire; minor disputes were settled at the village level. Punishment for minor crimes were in the form of fines or a direction for the offender to donate to some charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution or the confiscation of property

Foreign Trade

The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures

Cultural Contributions

Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.

The Chola conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and Srivijaya, and their continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire, enabled them to influence the local cultures. Many of the surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout the Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of the Cholas

Literature

The age of the Imperial Cholas (850–1200) was the golden age of Tamil culture, marked by the importance of literature. Chola inscriptions cite many works, the majority of which have been lost.

The revival of Hinduism from its nadir during the Kalabhras spurred the construction of numerous temples and these in turn generated Saiva and Vaishnava devotional literature. Jain and Buddhist authors flourished as well, although in fewer numbers than in previous centuries

Religion

In general, Cholas were the adherents of Hinduism. Throughout their history, they were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism as were the kings of the Pallava and Pandya dynasties. Even the early Cholas followed a version of the classical Hindu faith.

Early Middle Kingdoms

2009-01-26T00:52:00.000-08:00

In the wake of the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire during the 2nd century BC, South Asia became a collage of regional powers with overlapping boundaries. The Indus Valley and Gangetic plains of the northwest attracted a series of invaders between 200 BC and 300 AD. The Puranas speak of many of these tribes as foreigners and impure barbarians

The middle period was a time of notable cultural development. The Satavahanas, also known as the Andhras, were a dynasty which ruled in Southern and Central India starting from around 230 BCE. Satakarni, the sixth ruler of the Satvahana dynasty, defeated the Sunga dynasty of North India. Gautamiputra Satakarni was another notable ruler of the dynasty. Kuninda Kingdom was a small Himalayan state that survived from around the 2nd century BCE to roughly the 3rd century CE. The Kushanas invaded north-western India about the middle of the 1st century CE, from Central Asia, and founded an empire that eventually stretched from Peshawar to the middle Ganges and, perhaps, as far as the Bay of Bengal. It also included ancient Bactria (in the north of modern Afghanistan) and southern Tajikistan. The Western Satraps (35-405 CE) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India. They were the successors of the Indo-Scythians (see below) and contemporaneous with the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, and the Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in Central India.

Different empires such as the Pandyan Kingdom, Chola Empire, Chera dynasty, Kadamba Dynasty, Western Ganga Dynasty, Pallavas and Chalukya dynasty dominated the southern part of the Indian peninsula, at different periods of time. Several southern kingdoms formed overseas empires that stretched across South East Asia. The kingdoms warred with each other and Deccan states, for domination of the south. Kalabhras, a Buddhist kingdom, briefly interrupted the usual domination of the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in the South.

Ashoka Pillar

2009-01-26T00:43:00.001-08:00

The Lion capital of Ashoka is a sculpture of four “Indian lions” standing back to back. It was originally placed atop the Asoka pillar at Sarnath, now in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. The pillar, sometimes called the Asoka Column is still in its original location, but the Lion Capital is now in the Sarnath Museum. This Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath has been adopted as the National Emblem of India and the wheel “Ashoka Chakra” from its base was placed onto the center of the National Flag of India.

The capital contains four lions (Indian / Asiatic Lions), standing back to back, mounted on an abacus, with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull, and a lion, separated by intervening spoked chariot-wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the capital was believed to be crowned by a ‘Wheel of Dharma‘

Ashoka's dharma chakra, with 24 spokes (after Ashoka, the Great). Each spoke depicts one hour of the day, portraying the prevalence of righteousness all the 24 hour of it.

Maurya Empire

2009-01-26T00:32:00.000-08:00

The Maurya Empire (322–185 B.C), ruled by the Mauryan dynasty, was geographically extensive, powerful, and a political military empire in ancient India. The great Maurya empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya and this empire was flourished by Ashoka the Great. At its greatest extent, the Empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan and much of what is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces. The Empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded a big portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga which was won by Ashoka the Great.

Shortly after the passing of Alexander, India's first great empire arose, ruled by Chandragupta Maurya. According to legend, Chandragupta Maurya was the son of a herdsman. When he was a young man he met Alexander the Great, and days later he was awakened by a lion gently licking his body -- an omen that he would become royalty.

Chandragupta's counselor and advisor was his adoptive father, Chanakya, who is said to have kept Chandragupta's youthful impulses in check and to have been learned in medicine, Hellenism and Zoroastrianism. And it is said that he guided Chandragupta in a bloody war that began two years after Alexander left India, a war that ended with Chandragupta overthrowing the Nanda dynasty that had been ruling the state of Magadha.

Chanakya became Chandragupta's Prime Minister, and legend describes Chanakya (Kautilya) as the author of a book entitled Arthasastra, which appears to have been written during the time of Chandragupta but with writings added centuries later. Arthasastra means science of property and material success, and in the book this success includes political and diplomatic strategy aimed at uniting India
The book advises a king to control his subjects, especially his ministers, and the Brahmins, wealthy merchants and his beautiful women. And to help in this, according to the author, the king should employ an army of various artful persons as spies who keep watch at all levels of society. Arthasastra advises a king to be energetic, ever wakeful, to make himself accessible to his subjects and to guard against six enemies: anger, greed, lust, exuberance, hauteur and vanity. But foremost is the book's advocacy of military expansion.

Life in and around Chandragupta's Capital

Chandragupta's capital was Pataliputra (today, Putra), a city nine by two miles, surrounded by walls of timber, 570 towers, a moat 900 feet wide and 30 feet deep. The wealthy of Pataliputra had sumptuously furnished homes surrounded by gardens, fruit trees and ornamental ponds. They enjoyed festivals, gambling, horsemanship, horseracing, archery, swimming competition, and private parties on each other's terraces. They were literate, and their city had a university, where Brahmins taught grammar, rhetoric, economics and politics. Pataliputra also had trade guilds and schools that taught crafts and technical subjects.

An ambassador, Megasthenes, sent to Pataliputra by the Seleucus, described the people of Pataliputra as skilled in the arts, as having an abundance of nourishing food, a low incidence of thievery and people often leaving their houses and property unguarded. Megasthenes described the people of Pataliputra as uncomplicated in their manners, never drinking wine except at sacrifices, and as seldom going to court against one another.
According to Megasthenes, some upper class women received an education and some were recognized as accomplished in the arts, but he added that ordinarily Brahmins did not wish to educate their wives, believing that knowledge and learning were not for females. Megasthenes described a deterioration in the position of women accompanied by a rise in honor bestowed upon courtesans. He described a drop in the age at which females could be married, which was a better guarantee that a man would acquire a virgin. A man of twenty-four might marry a girl as young as eight, or a man of thirty might marry a twelve year-old -- marriages that were to be consummated when the bride matured.

Chandragupta as Autocrat, Sensualist and Martyr

The agricultural lands around the capital belonged to Chandragupta, which he "rented" for a quarter or sometimes a half of what was produced on them. And Chandragupta made those peasants working his fields exempt from service in his military or other obligations to the state.

Chandragupta divided his empire into districts, which were administered by his closest relatives and most trusted generals. Civil servants ruled various departments such as trade, taxation, mining, roads, and irrigation canals. His government held trade monopolies and owned slaughter-houses, gambling halls, mines, shipbuilding operations, armament factories and spinning and weaving operations. His government oversaw the standardization of weights, measures and coinage. It controlled prices and trade, including trade in liquor and prostitution. It obliged drinking places to have couches, scents, water and other amenities, and drinking places and "public houses" were not to be near each other.

Chandragupta feared revenge and assassins. Against these possibilities he had a network of spies. He expected authorities in various districts to know all comings and goings. People who were considered dangerous to his rule might disappear without a trace. He had food tasters to avoid being poisoned. And, like Shih Huang-ti, he never slept in the same bed two nights in succession.

Eliciting confessions by torture remained a normal method in police work. Punishment depended on class: Brahmin's were not tortured, but upon conviction of a crime they could be branded, exiled or sent to work in the mines. The low incidence of thievery described by Megasthenes might have been a result of the punishment for such a crime. Common people were executed for theft, for damaging property of the king, breaking into someone's home, evading taxes, injuring an artisan working for the state and many other crimes. Failure to meet a contract could lead to a fine if not a harsher penalty, as could incompetence in various forms of work, from washing clothes to treating the ill.

Toward the end of his more than twenty years of rule, Chandragupta surrounded himself with dancing girls and courtesans -- women who also worked as housemaids, cooks, garland makers, shampooers and who fanned Chandragupta or held an umbrella for him. He seldom left his palace, except for an occasional festival. But he remained a man of religion and concerned about his subjects. According to legend he was converted to Jainism by a sage who had predicted a twelve-year drought. With the drought came famine in place of the affluence described by Megasthenes. In an effort to combat the drought, Chandragupta, in 301 BCE, abdicated in favor of one of his sons, Bindusara, and he withdrew with the Jainist sage to a religious retreat in India's southwest. There, according to legend, while appealing to God for relief from the drought, he fasted to death.

The Buddhist Emperor, Ashoka

Bindusara, ruled for twenty-five years. He warred occasionally, reinforcing his authority within India, and he acquired the title "Slayer of Enemies." Then in the year 273 BCE, he was succeeded by his son Ashoka.who in his first eight years of rule did what was expected of him: he looked after the affairs of state and extended his rule where he could. Around the year 260 Ashoka fought great battles and imposed his rule on people southward along the eastern coast of India -- an area called Kalinga. The sufferings created by the war disturbed Ashoka. He found relief in Buddhism and became an emperor at least a little different in values from his father, grandfather and others. He was a Buddhist lay member and went on a 256-day pilgrimage to Buddhist holy places in northern India. Buddhism benefited from the association with state power that Hinduism had enjoyed -- and that Christianity would enjoy under Constantine the Great.
Ashoka had wells dug, irrigation canals and roads constructed. He had rest houses built along roads, hospitals built, public gardens planted and medicinal herbs grown. But Ashoka maintained his army, and he maintained the secret police and network of spies that he had inherited as a part of his extensive and powerful bureaucracy. He kept his hold over Kalinga, and he did not allow the thousands of people abducted from Kalinga to return there. He announced his intention to "look kindly" upon all his subjects, as was common among kings, and he offered the people of Kalinga a victor's conciliation, erecting a monument in Kalinga which read:

All men are my children, and I, the king, forgive what can be forgiven

Ashoka converted his foreign policy from expansionism to that of coexistence and peace with his neighbors -- the avoidance of additional conquests making his empire easier to administer. In keeping with his Buddhism he announced that he was determined to ensure the safety, peace of mind and happiness of all "animate beings" in his realm. He announced that he would now strive for conquest only in matters of the human spirit and the spread of "right conduct" among people. And he warned other powers that he was not only compassionate but also powerful.

Ashoka's wish for peace was undisturbed by famines or natural disasters. His rule did not suffer from the onslaught of any great migration. And during his reign, no neighboring kings tried to take some of his territory -- perhaps because these kings were accustomed to fearing the Maurya monarchs and thinking them strong.

The resulting peace helped extend economic prosperity. Ashoka relaxed the harsher laws of his grandfather, Chandragupta. He gave up the kingly pastime of hunting game, and in its place he went on religious pilgrimages. He began supporting philanthropies. He proselytized for Buddhism, advocating non-violence, vegetarianism, charity and tenderness to all living things.

Ashoka had edicts cut into rocks and pillars at strategic locations throughout his empire, edicts to communicate to passers-by the way of compassion, edicts such as "listen to your father and mother," and "be generous with your friends and relatives." In his edicts he spread hope in the survival of the soul after death and in good behavior leading to heavenly salvation. And in keeping with the change that was taking place in Buddhism, in at least one of his edicts Ashoka described Siddhartha Gautama not merely as the teacher that Siddhartha had thought of himself but as "the Lord Buddha."

Ashoka called upon his subjects to desist from eating meat and attending illicit and immoral meetings. He ordered his local agents of various ranks, including governors, to tour their jurisdictions regularly to witness that rules of right conduct were being followed. He commanded the public to recite his edicts on certain days of the year.

Ashoka's patronage of Buddhism gave it more respect, and in his empire Buddhism spread. More people became vegetarian, and perhaps there was some increase in compassion toward others. Ashoka
served harmony by pleading for tolerance toward Hindus and Jains. He worshiped no jealous god, and mindful of the close ties between Buddhism and Hinduism he claimed that the Brahmin's creed deserved respect, and he included Brahmins among his officials.

Not all Brahmins returned Ashoka's kindness. They were displeased with Ashoka's campaign against their sacrificial slaughtering of living creatures. But Ashoka's opposition to such sacrifices did please many among India's peasantry, whose flocks had long been plundered by local rulers seeking animals for their sacrifices.

Ashoka sent missionaries to the kingdoms of southern India, to parts of Kashmir in the northwest, to Persia, Egypt and Greece, but as Christians were to learn, old habits are not easily broken. Buddhism outside his kingdom took root only on the island of Lanka.

Work, taxation, class relations, government bureaucracy and village politics changed little, all of which -- like Ashoka's authority -- were considered the natural order of things. Whether prostitution had ended is unknown. In religion, old habits continued among Buddhists, as they looked to Brahmins to conduct those rites associated with births, marriages and deaths. Ashoka
attempted to resolve differences among the Buddhists -- as the Christian emperor Constantine would among the Christians -- but conflicts among the Buddhists remained and would grow.

In the final years of his reign, Ashoka withdrew from public life, and in 232 BCE -- after thirty-seven years of rule -- he died.
During the reign of his heirs the empire begin to split apart, including the breaking away of Kalinga

Collapse of the Maurya Empire

In 185 BCE, the rule of the Maurya family ended when an army commander-in-chief, Pusyamitra Sunga, murdered the last Maurya king during a parade of his troops. Pusyamitra's rise to power has been described, perhaps inaccurately, as a reaction by Brahmins to the Buddhism of the Maurya family. Nevertheless, the influence of state power on religion continued, with Pusyamitra supporting orthodox Brahminism and appointing Brahmins to state offices. And, with Pusyamitra's rule, animal sacrifices returned that had been prohibited under Ashoka and his heirs. Other matters outlawed by the Mauryas also returned, including musical festivals and dances

Persian and Greek invasions

2009-01-25T11:35:00.000-08:00

Much of the northwestern Indian Subcontinent (present day Eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in c. 520 BCE during the reign of Darius the Great, and remained so for two centuries thereafter. In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire, reaching the north-west frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There, he defeated King Puru in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modern-day Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab. Alexander's march East put him in confrontation with the Nanda Empire of Magadha and Gangaridai Empire of Bengal. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, was convinced that it was better to return.

The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on Indian civilization. The political systems of the Persians was to influence future forms of governance on the subcontinent, including the administration of the Mauryan dynasty. In addition, the region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of Mahayana Buddhism

Mahajanapadas

2009-01-25T06:34:00.000-08:00

Mahajanapadas literally means "Great Kingdoms".The political structure of the ancient Indians appears to have started with semi-nomadic tribal units called JanaThis process of first settlement on land had completed its final stage prior to the times of Buddha and Panini. The Pre-Buddhist North-west region of Indian sub-continent was divided into several Janapadas demarcated from each other by boundaries.
The Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (Solasa Mahajanapadas) which were in existence before the time of Buddha.
The Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, at several places, gives a list of sixteen great nations:

Kasi
Kosala
Anga
Magadha
Vajji (or Vriji)
Malla
Chedi
Vatsa (or Vamsa)
Kuru
Panchala
Machcha (or Matsya)
Surasena
Assaka
Avanti
Gandhara
Kamboja

Iron Age

2009-01-25T06:33:00.000-08:00

The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H) culture, also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition.

There has been evidence for even earlier iron-working in India. Technical studies on materials dated c. 1000 BCE at Komaranhalli (Karnataka) showed that the smiths of this site could deal with large artifacts, implying that they had already been experimenting for centuries

The earliest Iron Age site in South India is Hallur, Karnataka at around 1000 BC.

Vedas

2009-01-25T06:27:00.000-08:00

In Vedic Period Mailnly 4 Vedas Were Present, that are followed even now they are:
=>Rig Veda
=>Yajur Veda
=>Sam Veda
=>Atharva Veda

Rig Veda

The oldest and most important of the four Vedas. It is composed of about 10,000 hymns in ten mandalas (books). The main deities worshipped are: Indra, Agni, Soma, Surya, Varuna, Mitra, Usha, Saraswati, and Aditi.

The Hymns seek: contentment, courage, devotion, energy, fearlessness, forgiveness, mercy, income, good life, happiness, health, intellect, long life, mental growth, peace, progeny, prosperity, purification, righteousness, success, victory, wealth, wisdom, and zeal.These Included prayers for occasions like: house warming, wedding ceremony, etc.
One of the Vedic mantras that forms part of the daily worship of the Hindus is the Gayatri Mantra (Rigveda, 3, 62, 10). Its main theme is: "We contemplate and adore the knowledge and power of the World-Creator who infuses the intellectual faculties in us."

Yajur Veda

the Yajurveda 'Samhita', or 'compilation', contains the liturgy (mantras) needed to perform the sacrifices of the religion of the Vedic period, and the added Brahmana and Shrautasutra add information on the interpretation and on the details of their performance.
Yajur - Veda gives a practical shape to the verses of the Rig-Veda, and helps actual performance of the Yadnyas by using the hymns of the Rig-Veda.

Sam Veda

The Sam-Veda sets to melodious music, the mantras of the Rig-Veda. This Veda defines the seven swaras (notes). Sam Veda forms the basis of the Bharatiya classical music.

Atharva Veda

According to tradition, the Atharvaveda was mainly composed by two groups of rishis known as the Atharvanas and the Angirasa, hence its oldest name is Ātharvāgirasa

The Atharvaveda is considered by many to be as dark and secret knowledge, pertaining to the spirits and the afterlife. In the Mahabharata, when the Pandavas are exiled to the forests for thirteen years, Bhima, being frustrated, suggests to Yudhisthira that they consult the Atharvaveda, and "shrink time, and hereby compress thirteen years to thirteen days..."Subjects like: agriculture, healing of diseases are discussed in this Veda.

Upa-Veda

There are four secondary Vedas: (they of a later origin, than the primary Vedas.)

- Ayurveda (medicine),
- Dhanur Veda (military science)
- Gandharva Veda (music and dance)
- Sthapatya Veda (Architecture)

Vedic Period Civilization

2009-01-25T06:19:00.000-08:00

The Vedic Period is one of major milestones in the history of India. It is estimated that the Vedic Period in India lasted from 1500 - 600 B.C. This period brought about a multitude of changes in the lifestyle of people.

The Vedic age is broadly classified into two categories:
=>Early Vedic Age
=>Later Vedic age

Early Vedic Age

There was development in agricultural practices, worshipping patterns, philosophical outlooks, etc. A number of dynasties and new religions came into being during this period that left a huge impact on people. Read on the history of the Vedic Age.

The migration of the Aryans to the Indian sub continent is what triggered off the Vedic Age.Various Aryan tribes migrated to the indian subcontinent in large hoards from what is present-day Iran through the famous Khyber Pass. They rapidly spread to the area known as the Saptsindhu (the land of seven rivers), which included eastern parts of present-day Afghanistan, the Punjab (in Pakistan and also in India), and fringes of western Uttar Pradesh.

The Aryans soon mingled with the local people and adopted an agrarian way of life after settling down in small, organized communities in northwestern India. The knowledge of horse riding and a powerful cavalry was the main cause of the Aryans spreading rapidly into various regions in India, as they could easily suppress their rivals.

As the name suggests, this period got its name from the four major Vedas or the sacred scriptures that were created during that time. The four sacred Vedas are Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. These scriptures provide essential knowledge of the lifestyle during the Vedic Age. The Vedas are the foundation of the Hindu religion. Apart from the Vedas, we have two great epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata written during this age. These two epics tell a lot about the culture, society, religious beliefs, etc. of people during that time

The Vedic Aryans were divided into different groups, but they were held together by a common worship of their gods and by their ordering of religious observance. In their view, life was in the hands of the gods, to be killed or raised to a status with their own. The correct performance of sacrifices brought earthly increase and an assured comfort in the heavens above, the ideal of Vedic life.

Political Organization

The rashtra (polity) was governed by a rajan (chieftain, 'king'). The king is often referred to as gopa (protector) and occasionally as samrat (supreme ruler). He governed the people with their consent and approval. He was elected from a restricted class of 'royals' (rajanya).
The main duty of the king was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain) and the senani (army chief; sena: army). The former not only gave advice to the ruler but also was his chariot driver and practiced spells and charms for success in war. Soldiers on foot (pattis) and on chariots (rathins), armed with bow and arrow, were common. The king employed spaś (spies) and dutas (messengers). He collected taxes (originally ceremonial gifts, bali), from the people which he had to redistribute.

Society and Economy

The concept of varna (class) and the rules of marriage were rigid as is evident from Vedic verses (RV 10.90, W. Rau 1957). The status of the Brahmins and Kshatriyas was higher than that of the Vaishyas and Shudras. The Brahmins were specialized in creating poetry, preserving the sacred texts, and carrying out various types of rituals. Functioning as intellectual leadership, they also restricted social mobility between the varnas, as in the fields of science, war, literature, religion and the environment. Kshatriyas amassed wealth (cattle), and many commissioned the performance of sacrifices. Kshatriyas helped in administering the polity, maintained the structure of society and the economy of a tribe, and helped in maintaining law and order.

In the Early Vedic Period all the three upper classes Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas were considered as --relatively-- equal Arya, but in the Later Vedic Age the Brahmins and Kshatriyas became upper class. The Vaishyas were pastoralists and farmers; the Shudras were the lower class; they included artisans and were meant to serve the upper three classes . As the caste system became deep-rooted there were many restrictions and rules which were to be followed.

Cattle were held in high esteem and frequently appear in Rigvedic hymns; goddesses were often compared to cows, and gods to bulls. Agriculture grew more prominent with time as the community gradually began to settle down in post-Rigvedic times. The economy was based on bartering with cattle and other valuables such as salt or metals.

Families were patrilineal, and people prayed for the abundance of sons. The Society was strictly organized in a system of four varna (classes, to be distinguished from caste, jati)

Vedic Religious Practices

The mode of worship was performance of sacrifices which included the chanting of Rigvedic verses singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of offering mantras The priests executed rituals for the three upper classes (varna) of Vedic society, strictly excluding the Sudras. People offered for abundance of rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'.

Later Vedic Age - Culture and Society

The society in the Later Vedic Age became more complex and hierarchical in nature. The size of the settlements grew and people began to live in self - sufficient areas that were protected by forts and warriors. People began to explore the sub-continent more and started to move towards the south. This period marked the beginning of hereditary kingship. In this, the son of the chief gained his position and became his successor. Thus, power was handed down from father to son and so on. It was during this time that Hinduism was evolved and a plethora of Gods and Goddess came into the picture.
tHE agriculture became the dominant economic activity and a corresponding decline in the significance of cattle rearing. Several changes went hand in hand with this.

Kingdoms

The late Vedic period was marked by the rise of the sixteen Mahajanapadas referred to in some of the literature. The power of the king and the Kshatriyas greatly increased. Rulers gave themselves titles like ekarat (the one ruler), sarvabhauma (ruler of all the earth) and chakravartin ('who moves the wheel'). The kings performed sacrifices like rajasuya, (royal consecration) vajapeya (including a chariot race) and, for supreme dominance over other kings, the ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). The coronation ceremony was a major social occasion. Several functionaries, in addition to the purohita and the senani, took part. The role of the people in political decision making and the status of the Vaishyas as such was greatly decreased

Indus Valley Civilization

2009-01-25T05:43:00.000-08:00

The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600–1900 BCE), was an ancient civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin. Primarily centred in India (Gujarat, Haryana and Rajasthan) and today's Pakistan (Sindh and Punjab provinces), it extended westward into the Balochistan province of Pakistan. Remains have been excavated from Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and Iran, as well.
Historically part of Ancient India, it is one of the world's three earliest urban civilizations along with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. The mature phase of this civilization is technically known as the Harappan Civilization.

There are several theories as to the origin of the Indus Valley civilization. The earliest hypothesis was that it was an early form of a Vedic and early Sanskrit civilization which would come to dominate most of South Asia, which was presumed to have been characterized by influence from Indo-European migrations. However, this theory began to be rejected when no signs of the traditional culture associated with the Vedas was uncovered in that of the Indus Valley. The absence of horses amongst the many realistic representations of animals was also considered significant, considering the importance of horses and chariots to the culture described in the Vedas. Detailed bone analysis has revealed that the horse itself was introduced to the subcontinent only at the beginning of the second millennium B.C., which contributes to the chronological problem with this theory.Finally, the concept of urban life which dominates the Indus Valley civilization is foreign to the more rural lifestyle which is described in the Vedas.

The next theory put forward was that the civilization was of proto-Dravidian origin.This theory was first proposed by researchers from Russia and Finland who attempted to show that Indus valley symbols could be derived from the Dravidian language group. Today, the Dravidian language family is concentrated mostly in southern India and northern Sri Lanka, but pockets of it still remain throughout the rest of India and Pakistan (the Brahui language), which lends credence to the theory. Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola concludes that the uniformity of the Indus inscriptions precludes any possibility of widely different languages being used, and that an early form of Dravidian language must have been the language of the Indus people. However, the proto-Dravidian origin theory is far from being confirmed due to an emphasis on linguistic connection while evidence of a broader cultural connection remains to be found.
The three main phases of the Indus Valley Civilization are:
Early Harappan (Integration Era)
Mature Harappan (Localization Era)
Late Harappan (Regionalization Era)

Early Harappan

The Early Harappan Phase lasted from 3300 BC to 2800 BC. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley. The earliest examples of the Indus script date back to 3000 BC. This phase stands characterized by centralized authority and an increasingly urban quality of life. Trade networks had been established and there was also domestication of crops. Peas, sesame seeds, dates, cotton, etc, were grown during that time. Kot Diji represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan Phase

Mature Harappan

By 2600 BCE, the Early Harappan communities had been turned into large urban centers.Such urban centers include Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-daro in modern day Pakistan and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Lothal in modern day India. In total, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Indus Rivers and their tributaries.
The following features of the Mature Phase were more prominent:

Cities

A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley Civilization making them the first urban centers in the region. The quality of municipal town planning suggests the knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority on hygiene, or, alternately, accessibility to the means of religious ritual.
As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and the recently partially excavated Rakhigarhi, this urban plan included the world's first urban sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. The house-building in some villages in the region still resembles in some respects the house-building of the Harappans
The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today. The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms and protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts
Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others pursuing the same occupation in well-defined neighborhoods. Materials from distant regions were used in the cities for constructing seals, beads and other objects.

Science

The people of the Indus Civilization achieved great accuracy in measuring length, mass, and time. They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures. Their measurements are said to be extremely precise; however, a comparison of available objects indicates large scale variation across the Indus territories. Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal, was approximately 1.704 mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age. Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of measurement for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by their hexahedron weights. The brick weights were in a perfect ratio of 4:2:1.
Unique Harappan inventions include an instrument which was used to measure whole sections of the horizon and the tidal lock. In addition, Harappans evolved some new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin. The engineering skill of the Harappans was remarkable, especially in building docks after a careful study of tides, waves and currentsThe early Harappan periods, had knowledge of proto-dentistry.

Arts and culture

Many crafts "such as shell working, ceramics, and agate and glazed steatite bead making" were used in the making of necklaces, bangles, and other ornaments from all phases of Harappan sites and some of these crafts are still practiced in the subcontinent today.Some make-up and toiletry items (a special kind of combs (kakai), the use of collyrium and a special three-in-one toiletry gadget) that were found in Harappan contexts still have similar counterparts in modern India.Terracotta female figurines were found (ca. 2800-2600 BCE) which had red color applied to the "manga" (line of partition of the hair).
Seals have been found at Mohenjo-daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and another sitting cross-legged in what some call a yoga-like pose.
A harp-like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two shell objects found at Lothal indicate the use of stringed musical instruments. The Harappans also made various toys and games, among them cubical dice (with one to six holes on the faces), which were found in sites like Mohenjo-Daro.There is also evidence of seals, toys, games and stringed musical instruments in the Indus Valley.

Trade and transportation

The Indus civilization's economy appears to have depended significantly on trade, which was facilitated by major advances in transport technology. These advances included bullock carts that are identical to those seen throughout South Asia today, as well as boats. Most of these boats were probably small, flat-bottomed craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those one can see on the Indus River today; however, there is secondary evidence of sea-going craft.

Agriculture

The major cultivated cereal crop was naked six-row barley, a crop derived from two-row barley. However, not much information is available on the farmers and their agricultural methods.

Writing or symbol system

over 400 distinct Indus symbols (some say 600) have been found on seals, small tablets, or ceramic pots and over a dozen other materials, including a "signboard" that apparently once hung over the gate of the inner citadel of the Indus city of Dholavira.
The Indus Valley Civilization is often characterized as a literate society on the evidence of these inscriptions, this description has been challenged on linguistic and archaeological grounds

Religion

In view of the large number of figurines found in the Indus valley, it has been widely suggested that the Harappan people worshipped a Mother goddess symbolizing fertility.Some Indus valley seals show swastikas which are found in later religions and mythologies, especially in Indian religions such as Hinduism and Jainism. The earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism are present before and during the early Harappan period. Phallic symbols resembling the Hindu Siva lingam have been found in the Harappan remains.
Many Indus valley seals show animals. One famous seal shows a figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position and surrounded by animals was named after Pashupati (lord of cattle), an epithet of Shiva and Rudra.In the earlier phases of their culture, the Harappans buried their dead.later, especially in the Cemetery H culture of the late Harrapan period, they also cremated their dead and buried the ashes in burial urns, a transition notably also alluded to in the Rigveda, where the forefathers "both cremated (agnidagdhá-) and uncremated (ánagnidagdha-)" are invoked

Late Harappan Phase

The signs of a gradual decline of the Indus River Valley Civilization are believed to have started around 1800 BC. By 1700 BC, most of the cities were abandoned. However, one can see the various element of the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization in later cultures. Archaeological data indicates the persistence of the Late Harappan culture till 1000-900 BC. The major reasons of the decline of the civilization are believed to be connected with climate change. Not only did the climate become much cooler and drier than before, but substantial portions of the Ghaggar Hakra river system also disappeared.

Mehrgarh Civilization

2009-01-25T05:34:00.000-08:00

Mehrgarh is seen as a precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization
Mehrgarh,one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC) sites in archaeology, lies on what is now the "Kachi plain" of todays Balochistan, Pakistan, and is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia.

Mehrgarh—in the northeast corner of the 495-acre (2.00 km2) site—was a small farming village dated between 7000 BC–5500 BC

Early Mehrgarh residents lived in mud brick houses, stored their grain in granaries, fashioned tools with local copper ore, and lined their large basket containers with bitumen. They cultivated six-row barley, einkorn and emmer wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. Residents of the later period (5500 BC to 2600 BC) put much effort into crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metal working. The site was occupied continuously until about 2600 BC

Archaeologists divide the occupation at the site into several periods. Mehrgarh Period I 7000 BC–5500 BC, was Neolithic and aceramic (i.e., without the use of pottery). The earliest farming in the area was developed by semi-nomadic people using plants such as wheat and barley and animals such as sheep, goats and cattle. The settlement was established with simple mud buildings with four internal subdivisions. Numerous burials have been found, many with elaborate goods such as baskets, stone and bone tools, beads, bangles, pendants and occasionally animal sacrifices, with more goods left with burials of males. Ornaments of sea shell, limestone, turquoise, lapis lazuli, sandstone and polished copper have been found, along with simple figurines of women and animals. Sea shells from far sea shore and lapis lazuli found far in Badakshan, Afghanistan shows good contact with those areas. A single ground stone axe was discovered in a burial, and several more were obtained from the surface. These ground stone axes are the earliest to come from a stratified context in the South Asia.

In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh made the discovery that the people of the Indus Valley Civilization, from the early Harappan periods, had knowledge of proto-dentistry. Later, in April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e. in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh. According to the authors, their discoveries point to a tradition of proto-dentistry in the early farming cultures of that region. "Here we describe eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults discovered in a Neolithic graveyard in Pakistan that dates from 7,500 to 9,000 years ago. These findings provide evidence for a long tradition of a type of proto-dentistry in an early farming culture

Stone Age

2009-01-25T04:36:00.000-08:00

Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley in Central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the Middle Pleistocene era, somewhere between 200,000 to 500,000 years ago. Though most traces of the out of Africa migration along the shores of the Indian Ocean seem to have been lost. Due to flooding in the post-Ice Age period, recent finds in TamilNadu (at c. 75,000 years ago, before and after the explosion of the Toba vulcano) indicate the presence of the first anatomically modern humans in the area. The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent covered a timespan of around 25,000 years, starting around 30,000 years ago. More extensive settlement of the subcontinent occurred after the end of the last Ice Age, or approximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka in modern Madhya Pradesh, India. Early Neolithic culture in South Asia is represented by the Mehrgarh findings (7000 BCE onwards) in present day Balochistan, Pakistan. Traces of a Neolithic culture have been found submerged in the Gulf of Khambat in India, radiocarbon dated to 7500 BCE. Late Neolithic cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region between 6000 and 2000 BCE and in southern India between 2800 and 1200 BCE.

The region of the subcontinent that is now the country of Pakistan has been inhabited continuously for at least two million years. The ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements and some of its major civilizations.

The earliest archaeological site in South Asia is the palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley. Village life began with the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh, while the first urban civilization of the region was the Indus Valley Civilization, with major sites at Mohenjo Daro, Lothal and Harappa.

The region of the subcontinent that is now the country of Pakistan has been inhabited continuously for at least two million years. The ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements and some of its major civilizations.

The earliest archaeological site in South Asia is the palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley. Village life began with the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh,] while the first urban civilization of the region was the Indus Valley Civilization, with major sites at Mohenjo Daro, Lothal and Harappa.

History Of India

2009-01-25T04:34:00.000-08:00

The history of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization, which spread and flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent, from c. 3300 to 1300 BCE. Its Mature Harappan period lasted from 2600-1900 BCE. This Bronze Age civilization collapsed at the beginning of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Iron Age Vedic period, which extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plains and which witnessed the rise of major kingdoms known as the Mahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms Magadha, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha were born in the 6th century BCE, who propagated their Shramanic philosophies among the masses.
Later, successive empires and kingdoms ruled the region and enriched its culture - from the Achaemenid Persian empire around 543 BCE, to Alexander the Great in 326 BCE. The Indo-Greek Kingdom, founded by Demetrius of Bactria, included Gandhara and Punjab from 184 BCE; it reached its greatest extent under Menander, establishing the Greco-Buddhist period with advances in trade and culture.
The subcontinent was united under the Maurya Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. It subsequently became fragmented, with various parts ruled by numerous Middle kingdoms for the next ten centuries. Its northern regions were united once again in the 4th century CE, and remained so for two centuries thereafter, under the Gupta Empire. This period, of Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known among its admirers as the "Golden Age of India." During the same time, and for several centuries afterwards, Southern India, under the rule of the Chalukyas, Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas, experienced its own golden age, during which Indian civilization, administration, culture, and religion (Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of south-east Asia.
Islam arrived on the subcontinent in 712 CE, when the Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh and Multan in southern Punjab, setting the stage for several successive invasions between the 10th and 15th centuries CE from Central Asia, leading to the formation of Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent, including the Ghaznavid, the Ghorid, the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. Mughal rule came to cover most of the northern parts of the subcontinent. Mughal rulers introduced middle-eastern art and architecture to India. In addition to the Mughals, several independent Hindu kingdoms, such as the Maratha Empire, the Vijayanagara Empire and various Rajput kingdoms, flourished contemporaneously, in Western and Southern India respectively. The Mughal Empire suffered a gradual decline in the early eighteenth century, which provided opportunities for the Afghans, Balochis and Sikhs to exercise control over large areas in the northwest of the subcontinent until the British East India Company gained ascendancy over South Asia.
Beginning in the mid-18th century and over the next century, India was gradually annexed by the British East India Company. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the First War of Indian Independence, after which India was directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of both rapid development of infrastructure and economic decline.
During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, and later joined by the Muslim League. The subcontinent gained independence from Great Britain in 1947, after being partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan. Pakistan's eastern wing became the nation of Bangladesh in 1971.

India......an introduction

2009-01-25T04:24:00.000-08:00

The name `India’ is derived from the River Indus, the valleys around which were the home of the early settlers. The Aryan worshippers referred to the river Indus as the Sindhu.
The Persian invaders converted it into Hindu. The name `Hindustan’ combines Sindhu and Hindu and thus refers to the land of the Hindus.
India is a country that leaves one spellbound with its alluring contrasts and striking features in all that it beholds! India is a 34,000 years old country with a rich legend and history. One is sure to get intermingled with the plaited knots of customary and contemporary ingredients of India. Where else will you experience spirituality and solitude than in the mystic land of the lords! The rich rituals, distinct culture of India, festivals and ceremonies that India celebrates, unfold its legendary sagas.
Ancient India was a country that covered the territories of Pakistan, Bangladesh apart from the territory of current India. Ancient Indian history can be broadly divided into three ages namely the Bronze Age, Indus valley civilization and the Vedic age.
India got its independence on August 15th, 1947. It was the day when the Indians got liberated from the rule of the British. The entire freedom struggle involved a lot of political organizations, non-violence movements, philosophies and other acts. India got its independence after almost hundred years of struggle and bondage.
Religion in India is as diverse as its geography and culture. It comprises of world’s most ancient traditions and believes. In India, religion and culture play a very important role. Religion is an essential part of most Indians.
Agriculture is not only the dominant occupations of the people of India but is also one of the most important economic sectors for the country. Almost two-thirds of the working population of India is dependent on agriculture for its livelihood.
Indian economy is on the rise for the past few years with effects of globalization, privatization and liberalization being seen. This has opened up many new business opportunities in India for foreign and multinational companies. India has now materialized into an appropriate destination for various enterprises.